In the era of the early Roman Empire, approximately 20,000 people resided in the city of Pompeii, close to the Bay of Naples, Italy. However, the merchants, craftsmen, and farmers who took advantage of the fertile black soil of the area never realised that they were living under the shadow of such a considerable threat - the only currently active volcano in mainland Europe - Mount Vesuvius. 

On August 24th, in the year 79 AD, after some warning signs of earthquakes, Mount Vesuvius put an end to the thriving lifestyle offered by Pompeii when a ten-mile mushroom cloud of ash and pumice was launched into the stratosphere. Mount Vesuvius had exploded, and for over twelve hours, it rained down ash, rocks, and pumice stones onto the occupants of Pompeii, Herculaneum, and Stabiae.

People fled their homes in terror, but roughly two thousand people sought refuge in Pompeii - within whatever structure they could find in the hopes of surviving the eruption. 

The History of Pompeii

Unlike the other towns in the area, Pompeii was largely founded by Greek settlers, as it was mostly built by the Oscans in roughly the 8th and 9th centuries BC. It was founded on a large lava terrace, which had been formed by previous volcanic eruptions from Mount Vesuvius, and provided shelter from the threat of conquering tribes. 

The black soil of the Sarno Valley where Pompeii was built meant that the land was especially fertile - therefore, the economy was able to quickly thrive based on their agriculture and trade. The occupants of the city soon made connections with other Greek colonies and adopted many of their ways of life - such as their culture and religion.

However, it was inhabited by the Etruscans for approximately fifty years, as most of the area was invaded by the tribe. Yet, after this period, Pompeii was reclaimed by the Greeks and was thus highly influenced by the Samnites during the fifth century - hence, the architectural and historical expansion of the city - much of which can be seen today. 

At the same time, Rome’s authority had started to affect more areas of southern Italy and its inhabitants. Eventually, the empire’s power even overcame the Samnites’ force, and the tribe surrendered the city of Pompeii - which, in time, became an influential city with its own local independence. Although there was some discontent from the tribes that continued to fight for their freedom, Rome triumphed in the end, and Pompeii became Colonia Cornelia Veneria Pompei in 80 BC. 

After this time, Pompeii saw rapid periods of expansion in trade, agriculture, and maritime fare. Thus, the city’s reputation preceded itself beyond that of the nearby towns and became a prestigious and wealthy city to reside in.

This was reflected in its inhabitant's way of life - as a class structure was formed, the population increased, and the levels of affluence drastically increased. As a result, Pompeii became even more architecturally impressive with its spectacular villas and structures, jewellery, and ornaments. 

Mount Vesuvius

Mount Vesuvius forms part of the Campanian volcanic arc that comprises the joining of the African and Eurasian tectonic plates on the Italian peninsula. The only still-active volcano on the continent of Europe, Vesuvius is thought to have exploded roughly fifty times over thousands of years. One particularly violent eruption - known as the Avellino eruption - released millions of tons of ash, rocks, and lava approximately twenty-two miles into the air, destroying every dwelling or structure within approximately fifteen miles of its vicinity. 

Before Mount Vesuvius erupted in 79 AD, a large earthquake ravaged the area in 63 AD - which is now believed to have been a warning sign of the impending disaster that followed.

Despite the threat of living in the land around the base of Vesuvius, many people still travelled in their droves to enjoy the beauty and benefits of life in the Bay of Naples - and increased the population of Pompeii as a result.

Mount Vesuvius last erupted in 1944 - but its last major eruption was in 1631. Scientists believe that Vesuvius will erupt again, which could potentially be catastrophic for the approximately seven hundred thousand people who live in its locality.

The Night of the Eruption

Sixteen years after the warning earthquake, at noon on the 24th of August, 79 AD, Mount Vesuvius left an indelible mark on history by exploding ash, lava, and pumice onto the surrounding area.

Although most of Pompeii’s occupants fled for their lives, those who remained were killed the next morning when a toxic cloud of gas rolled into the city and suffocated them all. However, even if the gas didn’t kill the remaining people, the rock and ash flow that followed would have done - as it destroyed the walls and ceilings of the city and buried the dead - freezing them in the time. 

We don’t know much about the night of the eruption, but what we do know was provided by Pliny the Younger, as he provided the only surviving eyewitness account.

Pliny, who was seventeen at the time, recounted his experiences roughly twenty-five years after the event to Tacitus - a Roman historian. Pliny told of how “people covered their heads with pillows, the only defence against a shower of stones,” and further detailed how “a dark and horrible cloud charged with combustible matter suddenly broke and set forth. Some bewailed their own fate. Others prayed to die.” Pliny the Younger’s terrifying reports further described an extraordinarily dense cloud, which rose above Mount Vesuvius, and detailed how a pine tree with wide-spreading branches was “sometimes bright and sometimes dark and spotted - impregnated with earth and cinders. After three tremors, the sea rolled back upon itself. Flashes appeared through dark clouds, and ash fell like a blanket of snow.”

According to Pliny’s descriptions, the eruption continued for eighteen hours, burying Pompeii under almost seventeen feet of ash. Herculaneum endured an even worse fate and was submerged under almost sixty feet of volcanic matter.

Fortunately, Pliny survived the disaster and grew up to become influential in his own rights. However, his uncle, Pliny the Elder, was not as lucky. Pliny the Elder was a commander of a Roman fleet of ships at Misenum, and hoping both to investigate the situation and help people escape the eruption, ordered his boats to sail across the bay to Stabiae. However, once he reached the far side of the Bay of Naples, toxic gasses, hot cinders, and large pieces of pumice and rock overcame the area. Pliny the Elder ignored his helmsman’s advice to turn back, and shortly after, the onshore winds prevented them from doing so. 

Forced to endure the eruption at close range, and hoping to withstand the night, Pliny the Elder’s crew strapped pillows to their heads to protect themselves from falling debris. Yet, the strong winds didn’t change direction, and once Pliny sat down to rest, he met his fateful end. 

Your DNA Connection to Pompeii

Although it was previously believed that the intense heat of Vesuvius’ pyroclastic surges would have left its victims unviable for DNA analysis, recent advances in technology and genome sequencing have drastically enhanced the quality of information that can be recovered from the bone matrix - in which DNA is found. 

In particular, scientists have sequenced the first Pompeian human genome, specifically the genome of a Pompeiian from the House of the Craftsman (Casa del Fabbro), providing details of his life such as his age, genetic profile, and even the fact that he once had tuberculosis.

In 1933, the remains of a man and a woman were recovered from the Casa del Fabbro. Below is a detailed image showing the actual remains and how they were found.

They were found slumped in the corner of the dining room as it having a meal. The man was about 35-40 years old and the woman about 50. Despite a volcanic explosion, thermal shock and ash it was now for the first time possible to extract DNA from these remains (which are highlighted in the DNA Spotlight included in our database of ancient DNA samples).

There were gaps in the DNA of the woman but the man yielded an entire genome sequence. It turns out these residents likely stayed at home unable to run away from their impending fate as DNA sequences show the man had tuberculosis and the woman had been affected by osteoarthritis.

If you would like to know whether you have a DNA link to the Pompeiian from the House of the Craftsman, upload your raw DNA results to My True Ancestry for free to understand more about your genetic history. 

In the many hundreds of years since the Aztecs existed, their legacy has continued to persist through language, architecture, art, and a calendar system which largely influenced the modern one. But it may be the Aztec’s creativity that helped them to develop a thriving empire and keep their enemies at bay.

So what were the origins of this dominant empire, and which of its leaders played a significant role in both its success and downfall?

The Origins of the Aztecs and Their Major City

The precise origins of the Aztec people are somewhat unknown, yet historians believe that they came from a nomadic tribe of hunter-gatherers in northern Mexico. In fact, it may be the case that the name “Aztec” was derived from their potential homeland Aztlan - also known as “White Land” in the Aztec’s Nahuatl language. Interestingly, the Aztecs were also known as the Mexica and the Tenochca.

Although their exact genesis is debated, it is a relatively concrete fact that the Aztecs arrived in Mesoamerica at the start of the 13th century. Supposedly under the direction of their patron god Huitzilopochtli, they built their most famous city, Tenochtitlan - the name of which was derived from their alter-name, the Tenochca.

Aztec legend describes how Huitzilopochtli gave instructions to create their colony on the spot where a giant eagle was to be found eating a snake atop a cactus. Thus, upon locating such an area in Anahuac, the Aztecs drained the swampy land and built a settlement of artificial islands in roughly 1325 CE. This settlement was to become Tenochtitlan.

The Aztec Religion

Similar to other Mesoamerican tribes, the Aztecs were polytheistic. Therefore, they worshipped many gods, such as Huitzilopochtli - the god of war and sun - Tlaloc - god of rain - and Quetzalcoatl, a feathered serpent god who played a prominent role in the Aztec culture.

One of the Aztec’s major temples, Templo Mayor, was devoted to Huitzilopochtli and Tlaloc. What’s more, similar to their neighbouring tribes, the Aztecs were also known for engaging in human sacrifice. In order to accurately follow a strict religious and agricultural schedule, they developed an advanced calender system of 365 days. 

The Aztec Lifestyle

As the Aztecs were skilled hunter-gatherers, they supported their livelihood by hunting the small animals native to the area, including rabbits, turkeys, coyotes, armadillos, and even snakes. What’s more, they planted a range of vegetation such as the cacao tree, maize, potatoes, avocados, and beans. 

Interestingly, the Aztecs were one of the first known civilisations to make education compulsory for all individuals. However, it was likely their creativity and prowess in the field of agriculture which truly left their mark on civilisation: the Aztecs developed a sophisticated system of irrigating and cultivating their land, which allowed them to fund and build a powerful military and, thus, an empire. 

Unfortunately, the Aztec's achievements were largely disregarded by the invading Spanish conquerors and subsequent occupiers. For this reason, after invasion, the combination of new regulations, and introduction of diseases to which the Aztecs had never been exposed - such as smallpox - created a mass wipe-out of the Aztec civilisation. 

Moctezuma II - One of the Final Aztec Leaders

Moctezuma II is considered to be the most famous of the Aztec leaders as he ruled the city of Tenochtitlan and its surrounding empire prior to the Conquistadors' invasion. During this time of Spanish invasion - around 1521 AD - he became a figurehead of inspiration and resistance to his people. 

In the year 1502, Moctezuma took over leadership of the Aztec empire from his uncle, Ahuitzotl. From the very start of his reign, he was subject to resistance from various tribes as they were demanding more victims for human sacrifice in return for favours from the Gods.

In fact, it is believed by historians that the Aztecs had a deep-rooted fear of the return of the “White Bearded God” - Quetzalcoatl - who would take over control of their empire. Yet, Moctezuma was a devout follower of Huitzilopochtli and believed that the god was guiding him through a turbulent time. Although he defeated many tribal rebellions, these battles nevertheless weakened the empire. 

It may be the case that Cortes, the Spanish Conquistador, took advantage of the Aztec fear of Quetzalcoatl, as he himself was both white and bearded. However, it is also debated that the Spanish created this legend of the Aztec’s fear of the white man and incorporated it into myth after their invasion. 

Unfortunately, towards the end of his life, Moctezuma may have lost some of his peoples’ allegiance, as he had initially intended to trap Cortes into submission by welcoming him into Tenochtitlan. However, Cortes quickly recognised this invitation as a trap and captured Moctezuma, believing that as long as he held the Aztec emperor captive, the Aztec people would respond to his commands submissively.

Consistent with Spanish accounts, Moctezuma ventured to speak to his people with the intent of reasoning with them, but he was pilloried with stones and arrows and sustained extensive injuries. Moctezuma apparently died from these wounds three days later. However, the Aztecs firmly believed that the Spanish killed their leader. They retaliated with force, and Cortes’ army was attacked as it attempted to flee Tenochtitlan under darkness. 

The Aztec empire was ruled by two more leaders after Moctezuma’s death, but their reigns were brief and the empire soon succumbed to the Spanish. Due to Mocetzuma’s role in the collapse of the empire, portrayals of him as a leader in the aftermath were largely negative. However, many of his peers were divided in their opinions of him: some viewed him as one of Mexico’s most prominent leaders, while others saw him as a power hungry despot. Regardless, Moctezuma’s legacy has pervaded through the ages and he will continue to be known as one of the most significant influencers of European and Native American history. 

How You Connect With the Aztec Civilisation

If you would like to find out whether you have a genetic connection with the Aztecs, upload your raw DNA results to the My True Ancestry website. Our advanced technologies can help you discover the true history of you!

“How we keep these dead souls in our hearts. Each one of us carries within himself his necropolis.” - Gustave Flaubert

Technically, we can refer to any cemetery as a necropolis. But the term doesn’t exactly feel or sound fitting for the graveyards that we regularly pass in our home towns or in which we bury our loved ones.

Instead, the term necropolis implies the ancient worlds from civilisations ago - where famous or influential historical figures were laid to rest. Instead of headstones, we picture grandiose tombs, structured in an order intended to resemble streets. In Latin, necropolis essentially means “city of the dead” - so its unsurprising that these ancient graveyards were so elaborately constructed and steeped in history. 

The most famous of the necropolises would clearly include the Pyramids at Giza, or the Vatican Necropolis - yet, a relatively underrecognised one - the Centocelle Necropolis, may carry a very personal weight for those of us wanting to understand more about our ancient history.

What is the Centocelle Necropolis?

Ad Duas Lauros, a large, sprawling imperial area three miles out on the Via Labicana (an ancient Italian road leading east-southeast) from Rome, is most famous for housing the archaeological park of Centocelle. The park is significant in size, as it consists of approximately one hundred and thirty-six hectares on the outskirts of Rome. 

Construction of the Centocelle began during the time of the Roman Republic and wasn’t completed until the end of the Western Roman Empire. At one stage, the gardens at the Centocelle contained sculptures, a large courtyard, and an area dedicated to theatre. The park holds a distinctive historical significance, as it was mentioned in the Liber Pontificalis (the Book of the Popes from the 15th century) as the homeplace of Helena, mother of Constantine the Great. 

The Mausoleum of Helena

Originally the wife of Constantine I before he became emperor of Rome and renounced her for political reasons, Helena eventually became Saint Helena after historians in the Late Antiquity claimed that she was the founder of the True Cross of Jerusalem’s relics.

After her passing, Helena was buried in a stately mausoleum within the complex of Ad Lauros. Although the mausoleum was originally designed by Constantine the Great to be his own place of burial, he dedicated it to his mother after her death - and so it became The Mausoleum of Helena.

The Mausoleum of Helena was built on a circular plan, with a large domed cylinder and tall windows which supported its high ceiling (over twenty-five meters). The outer walls of the cylinder are approximately twenty-eight diameters, and although the dome is no longer in existence, its walls still stand to this day. The inner walls of The Mausoleum of Helena were likely once decorated by niches, mosaics, and coloured marbles to adequately represent the life of the person buried there. There is also a lower cylinder with an octagonal shape and numerous arcaded windows which were designed to allow the daylight to flood into the mausoleum. Shortly after its completion, other mausolea were built in close vicinity, and the Ad Duas Lauros was assigned to the Roman popes. 

In the 11th century, the Sarcophagus of Helena was moved to the Lateran (an area of the Vatican) - most likely due to her status as a saint. 

The Necropolis’ dark history

Before the Centocelle became the home of The Mausoleum of Helena, it was historically used as the cemetery for the equites singulares Augusti - otherwise known as “the personal cavalry of the emperor.” These highly trained imperial horse guards protected the Praetorian guard during the time of imperial Rome, escorting the emperor whenever he was called out of the city on campaigns or tours. Although the origin of the unit is relatively unknown, it is thought that they were in existence during the reign of Trajan (98-117 AD). As membership to the guard was strictly reserved for Roman citizens, these horse guards were likely granted Roman citizenship on enlistment into the cavalry. 

However, the cavalry sided with the Roman Emperor Maxentius against Constantine I in 312 AD during the famous Battle of the Milvian Bridge. According to historians, this battle marked Constantine’s transition to Christianity, as it was recounted that he had a vision of victory sent to him by the Christian God. Constantine and his army carried their message of Christianity with them into battle, as they painted the first two letters of Christ's name (Chi-Ro) in Greek on their shields. They defeated the equites singulares Augusti with relative ease, and while attempting to escape via the river Tiber, Emperor Maxentius drowned. Thus, after his victory, Constantine ordered that the equites singulares Augusti were to be disbanded, as were the rest of the Praetorian Guard. 

As further punishment, Maxentius’ decapitated head was paraded through the streets of Rome, and Constantine ordered that the burial place of the equites singulares Augusti - the cemetery at Centonelle - be destroyed and replaced by the mausoleum. 

What lies below the Mausoleum?

There’s more to the Centocelle Necropolis than meets the eye, as below ground, there are catacombs that predate the mausoleum's existence. Below the modern church of Santi Marcellino e Pietro ad Duas Lauros, lies the Catacombs of Marcellinus and Peter, which are thought to have been constructed in roughly 200 AD. Covering an area of over three hectares and consisting of over four kilometres of subterranean tunnels, the catacombs have a surprisingly mixed religious lineage, as they depict scenes from both pagan and Christian history (both the old and new testaments). One such image from the area marked “Room 79” depicts Peter striking water from a rock, the raising of Lazarus, Daniel in the lion’s Den, and Orpheus playing a lyre. Moreover, another area contains a fresco of Christ sitting on a throne, wrapped in a purple tunic - clearly drawing a comparison to the typical garb of the Roman emperors. 

Between the years 2004 to 2010, approximately twenty thousand skeletons were unearthed from the Catacombs of Marcellinus and Peter. The bodies appear to have undergone complex burial rituals, as it was discovered that they were often wrapped in textiles, covered in plaster or amber, and were either buried individually within niches or under arches or in groups within chambers. 

Your potential connection to the Centocelle Necropolis

Aside from the thousands of skeletons discovered in the catacombs, a further 61 bodies were found in the Centocelle Necropolis. Although the identity of these individuals is unknown, DNA samples were collected from their bodies and are now included in our database of ancient DNA samples. Moreover, modern technology makes it possible to determine whether a genetic link exists between modern DNA and these ancient samples. 

If you would like to find out whether you have a genetic association with the individuals unearthed at the Centocelle Necropolis, you can upload your DNA results to My True Ancestry’s website. We can help you discover the true history of you. 

Sweden is considered synonymous with lush forests, vast lakes, and lively festivals such as midsummer. It is a land of abundant beauty as far as the eye can see.

So, it may surprise some to find out that one of its best-kept beauties and resources is actually tucked away deep underground, just over two kilometres southwest of Sala - a relatively modest-sized town in central Sweden.

Once called “Sweden’s Treasure Chest” in the 1500s by King Gustav Vasa, the Sala Silver Mine not only played an integral role in Sweden’s history, but also in the country's economy and legacy. 

The history of Sala

The production and sourcing of metals have been critical to Sweden’s economic development since the middle ages. Financial success was essentially King Gustav Vasa’s ultimate aim, as the country was experiencing a time of upheaval and instability.

Fortunately, Sweden was rich in natural resources such as silver, ore, and waterpower - making mining a natural choice for monetary stability. Ultimately - largely thanks to the Sala mine - King Gustav Vasa achieved his goal, as he has since been credited as the founder of modern Sweden after helping fuel its economy at a time of relative precariousness. 

The bedrock in the land around Sala was historically known to be rich in silver - thus, mining on a small scale started a few kilometres from the major mine as early as the 12th century. However, organised mining of the area didn’t begin until the 15th century.

At one stage, between the 1530s-1540s, approximately 3,500 kilograms of pure silver were removed annually from the mine - roughly four hundred and fifty tons overall. What’s more, thirty-six thousand tons of lead were also extracted from Sala. Hence, the mine created a wealth of taxes for the state of Sweden - and, by proxy, the King’s delight in its success; he was not just able to secure his crown, but also help Sweden achieve independence from Denmark. 

Interestingly, the town of Sala didn’t exist until after the formation of the mine. Initially, it emerged from the miners settling near their place of work, but evolved to where it is currently located based on directions from the King.

The difficult construction of the mines 

Of course, the most important silver mine of all time wasn’t created overnight. In fact, the Sala Mines took 10 painstaking years to carve out, as they were constructed through a method known as “fire-setting.”

Fire-setting was a traditional technique and a standard mining method from prehistoric times to the middle ages. It was done by setting fires in close proximity to the rock face and subsequently dousing the rock with liquid - creating thermal shock and causing the rock to fracture and break. However, fire-setting could be particularly dangerous in more ventilated mines; thus, it was made redundant and replaced in time with explosives. 

Many of the main mining shafts were completed during the 16th century - including the impressive Queen Christina Shaft. As well as creating the shafts using fire-setting, horses were lowered underground using a harness to move the heavy loads of rock. Unfortunately, the animals lived to work and led a tough life where they would only see sunshine once or twice per year. 

There were a number of severe collapses during the 17th century, resulting in the death of many individuals. For this reason, German, Dutch, and Austrian mining engineers were brought in to improve the mining techniques and facilities of the particularly deep areas of the mine.

Furthermore, during this period, a system of waterways was added to facilitate even deeper level mining - approximately one hundred and fifty-five meters below the surface of the earth. 

Who worked at Sala?

Mining has always been recognised as a hazardous job - especially in Sala, where the weather conditions and hours were notoriously harsh. For this reason, the King ordered that the most dangerous work in Sala be done by prisoners of war, as after Sweden’s conflicts with Denmark, Russia, and Poland, the prisons were filled with foreign captives. 

Predictably, the prisoners were given a particularly challenging time, and it is said that the mine managers were put to death if they were considered too lenient. 

The current condition of the Sala Silver Mine

Although the Sala Silver Mine is no longer active, this does not mean that it doesn’t attract a crowd. Tourists flock to see the attractive buildings from the 18th century and the High Wire Track - which includes a three hundred meter suspension bridge over the mine. Moreover, the mine provides a fascinating insight into the depths of prehistoric rock from the Paleoproterozoic era and the industry that was developed around it. 

Also, interestingly,  the world’s deepest hotel suite can be found in the Sala Silver Mines. Aside from an intercom on the cave wall, the room is completely shut off from the outside world as it is one hundred and fifty-five meters below the ground surface. The attraction of the hotel room is likely the novelty of being able to completely immerse oneself in Sweden's deepest history. 

Your potential connection to the workers at Sala Mine

Due to the high number of deaths at the mine, the church cemetery in the nearby village of Salberget was used to bury miners, forced labourers, and foreign specialists. Between the years 2004 to 2011, 102 skeletons were unearthed from 93 graves. Based on the individuals’ clothing, the evidence of injuries sustained during life, and an iron collar found around the neck of one of the skeletons - many of these people were likely forced labourers at Sala.

The cemetery had been used for a variety of social groups including miners, foreign specialists and forced labor - either prisoners of war or individuals convictim of crimes. 80 of the graves were men, women and children buried in shrouds. However 22 were earthen burials of younger men wearing every day clothes, and they seemed to have a high degree of perimorten fractures. The Ancient DNA Spotlight samples included in our database are from this group of forced laborers.
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If you would like to know whether you could have a possible genetic link to one of the miners at Sala, you can upload your DNA results to the My True Ancestry website. We can then compare your DNA against the spotlight from these forced labourers and help determine the true history of you. 

There are few structures as seemingly naturalistic yet distinguishable as the hillfort. The structures’ name is entirely descriptive of their form - they were elevated earthworks, fortified to promote defensive advantage, and varying in size and stature according to the date in which they were built. As hillforts are inextricable from the landscapes and cultures they are surrounded by, those who grew up in the United Kingdom and Ireland usually learned about their history as the foundations of their historical knowledge. 

What are hillforts?

As their name suggests, hillforts are forts built on a hilltop. Constructed by Celtic tribes during the Iron Age, hillforts were typically enclosed by a system of ditches intended as protection from invading tribes.

These forts also consisted of ramparts made of earth, stone, and wood. Inside the forts, the Celts lived in one-room roundhouses with pointed roofs and walls constructed from a wattle and daub technique. This technique involved weaving sticks and twigs together and covering them with mud and clay until they solidified. 

An open fire was often constantly lit in the centre of these roundhouses, the walls were decorated with jars, and the beds were made from animal skins and straw. The roundhouses had no windows, so a small hole in the thatched roof was created to let smoke escape.

Furthermore, during the more bitter winter months, it was not uncommon for the farm animals to be housed inside the roundhouses with families. 

As the population in northern Europe increased in approximately 1100 BC, so too did the number of hillforts. In contrast to the southern parts of Europe, where settlements could house roughly 50 inhabitants, hillforts could home up to 1,000 people. The structures were used as homes for tribes, sources of safety from invasion, religious rituals, and crafting and farming. Many of the earlier hillforts were abandoned, but as time passed, more elaborate hillforts were built - many of which stood the test of time and can still be seen today.

In the early 20th century, historians assumed that hillforts were built principally for military reasons. Thus, excavation attempts focused on the ditches surrounding the forts. However, in the second half of the century, recognition was given to the importance of hillforts’ interiors and their function. Based on many of these archaeological discoveries, it was determined that the hillfort was the epitome of defensive weaponry, wealth, and power from the Iron Age. However, in recent years, acknowledgement has been given to the role that hillforts played in family and social lives.  

The most infamous hillforts

Maiden Castle

Hillforts varied massively in size and stature depending on the time in which they were built. For this reason, there are hillforts that are more expansive and well known than others. For example, Maiden Castle (derived from ‘Mai Dun’ - the Gaelic for ‘great hill’) is the most significant Iron Age hillfort in Europe. Maiden Castle is truly a sight to behold - covering approximately forty-seven acres, it can be found slightly short of Dorchester, England, and has ditches and ramparts twenty feet high and over five hundred metres in length. 

Archaeological digs of Maiden Castle unearthed flint tools, bronze age burial mounds, and objects from the early bronze age. Therefore, it is believed that the construction of the hillfort began in roughly 3000 BC. However, many of Maiden Castle’s still-standing structures were built during the Iron Age, when the fort was probably extended and its defensive barriers fortified. Not only did its inhabitants create three ditches, but they heightened the ramparts and built a wooden fence with unaligned entrances - making it even more arduous for the enemies to breach Maiden Castle’s defences. 

The Danebury Hillfort

Constructed in approximately 700 BC to 43 AD, the Danesbury Hillfort remains one of the most studied hillforts in Europe. Thought to be occupied for roughly five hundred years, the fort housed a community of between three or four hundred people. It is believed that this community predominantly consisted of farmers who crafted their own goods from wool and leather. Access to natural resources was limited from Danesbury; thus, its inhabitants relied on trading their goods for necessary iron, copper, stone, and salt. 

There may also have been druids, medicine men, and lawmakers in the Danebury community. In fact, historians believe that religion was an essential element of life for its inhabitants. Evidence of several shrines and temples were found within the inner circle of the fort, and there is a high area in the centre of the ring which may have been used for religious events. Thus, based on this information and sacrificial evidence, it is thought that the community worshipped their pagan gods through offerings and sacrifices. 

There likely were repeated invasion attempts of Danesbury hillfort, as excavations of the site unearthed javelins, spears, and swords.  Furthermore, when under attack, the villagers probably shut their large gates to prevent entry to the fort - as several burnt sections confirm violent conflicts/attacks. 

Interestingly, a chondrite meteorite was also found during the excavation of Danesbury - which may lead to more questions than it answers!

Battlesbury Camp

Located in Wilshire, Battlesbury Camp has provided us with an alternative viewpoint of life during the Iron Age. 

Named after an apparently legendary battle on the hill on which it was built, not only was the structure designed to make it inaccessible from the west and northwest, but it also had three ditches and ramparts to prevent invasion. Battlesbury Camp may have consisted of a fearsome tribe of people, as evidence suggests that its inhabitants raised their dead up on high platforms as either a religious passage into the afterlife or a deterrent to invading tribes. What’s more, animal skulls symbolically marked a blocked off entrance to the site - perhaps additional evidence of their attempts at discouraging invading forces. 

Furthermore, the villages at Battlesbury Camp angled their roundhouses’ entrances to catch the equinox sunrise - therefore, marking the winter solstice. Consequently, it is clear how important it was for the community to record the seasons for farming purposes such as sowing and ploughing. 

Excavations of Battlesbury discovered chariot wheels, tools, pottery, weapons, combs, and needles on site. Yet, curiously, one of the more significant discoveries was a rare coral bead from the Mediterranean - suggesting that the inhabitants of Battlesbury Camp were invested in long-distance trade. 

The history of hillforts and you

If you would like to know more about your link to ancient history, then upload your raw DNA data today - our basic analysis is free. Through uploading your DNA results onto our website, we can use our advanced methods to determine whether there’s any association between your genetics and that of the ancient Celtic inhabitants of hillforts. It’s never been so easy to know the history of you. 

In the British Museum, London, a bronze statue depicts a man bounding dramatically over the horns of a bull. Not only does the figurine depict a seemingly impossible act because the character is missing the bottom half of his legs due to a possible casting misstep, but surely the actual act of leaping over such a sizable beast is unfeasible in this manner? 

Yet, although likely different in reality from how the statue depicts it, the ancient sport of bull-leaping probably did exist.

The Bull-Leaper statue originally came from the island of Crete, where the early civilisation of the Minoans probably used it as part of a shrine. The reason why it would have been stored in a place of such importance was likely due to the social significance of bulls on the island and also the fact that bull-leaping was typically performed during religious ceremonies. 

But what can we tell about bull-leaping from the ancient artworks that depict it? And why was it of such social consequence to the Minoans?

What do we know about Bull-Leaping?

The bull-leaping statue is a form of ancient Minoan art, used to depict a non-violent form of bullfighting that survives still in modern-day France, Spain, and India (however, cows are more commonly used nowadays). The original form of the ancient sport apparently consisted of an acrobatic jump over the head of a bull, grabbing it by the horns to achieve momentum and height. 

Although early depictions of the sport make it sound and look treacherous, the Minoans were likely skilled enough at it to avoid too many accidents. Although, judging by a goring scene depicted on the “Boxer’s Rhyton” - a plaster cast of a drinking container used in ancient Greece which was unearthed in a Minoan settlement and took the form of a bull’s horn - accidents were certainly still an occurrence.  

The location of the bull-leaping statue in London has afforded some sense of infamy to the object - and by proxy - the sport itself. Yet, it is, in fact, The Bull-Leaping Fresco in Crete that is considered to be the most renowned piece of artwork around the cultural importance of bull-leaping. 

The Bull-Leaping Fresco was painted in approximately 1400 BC and is intricately linked to Minoan culture through its use of vivid colours and impressionistic style. Two figures with light skin tone (and thus, women according to the style of ancient Greek art) within the painting flank a bull in the center, while a man performs an impressive leap over its back. 

Essentially, the fresco is attempting to capture the strain of the Minoan’s attempts at conquering the often difficult landscape and wildlife of their island. This strain is often symbolised by the bull, considering that it was the largest animal on the island of Crete and was thus a subject of worship and reverence. After all, Crete was the home of the mythical Minotaur - the fearsome half-bull, half-man creature.

For these reasons, the Palace of Knossos in Crete is adorned by many symbols which represent the animals’ influence. 

The details of the practice of bull-leaping are the subject of much debate. On the one hand, there are historians who argue that the sport never took place in actuality - instead, they claim that it was merely metaphorical for the Minoans’ tension regarding mastery of the bull. However, on the other hand, there are those who can offer a step-by-step breakdown of how the sport was performed based on the artworks available to us. 

Was bull-leaping an actual sport or metaphorical?

Archaeologists and ethnoarchaeologists (people who study modern cultures to facilitate understanding of ancient history) have examined the early artworks depicting bull-leaping for many years in order to determine how influential the ancient sport is over modern practices. 

Although many in the field suggest that artwork such as the fresco in Crete is decorative and intended to metaphorically represent a cultural influence instead of actual athletic prowess, other historians adamantly dispute this belief. Essentially, these experts use the information available to describe how the athletes approached the bulls, grasped them by their horns, and used the horns as anchorage to facilitate somersaulting over the heads of the animals as depicted in the images, before jumping back to the ground.

Yet, it may be the variety of different artworks that depict specific scenes and methods that lend the strongest argument to the existence of the sport. In some cases, there are two bulls, not just one. Moreover, In many artworks, the bull is intimidating and fearsome, but in others, calm and seated. It is the sheer variety portrayed that provides a layered understanding of a likely real, historical sport. After all, why else would the artists have used different methods of portraying bull-leaping instead of just one, if it were in fact, metaphorical?

The modern influence of Bull-Leaping

In Spain and France, the modern form of bull-leaping Course Landaise (not to be confused with bullfighting) allows ethnoarchaeologists to evaluate the modern practicalities of the ancient sport. For example, both in ancient Crete and modern-day Spain and France, the athletes compete as a team in order to successfully conquer the bull. Furthermore, these athletes are predominately men, and they leap over the bull as it charges directly at them.

However, the differences between the ancient and modern forms of the sport would be that cows are mostly used, not bulls - so less risk is involved. And although the modern athletes are capable of impressive acrobatics as they leap, they are not typically capable of a one-handed spring over the animals’ heads as is depicted in ancient artworks. 

Your connection to bull-leaping and the Minoans: 

If you would like to know whether you have a DNA connection with the ancient Minoans and their skilled bull-leapers, then you can upload your raw DNA on My True Ancestry’s website. Finding out more about your history is just a couple of clicks away!  

Very little is known of the mysterious Osi tribe, and what is known was mostly gleaned from Tacitus - a Roman orator and public official with a reputation for impressive Latin prose. Although the Osi’s customs and language can be pinpointed, their origins, migration patterns, and exact influence still remain somewhat of an enigma.

Who were the Osi?

The Osi tribe were an ancient civilisation that lived just beyond the Quadi - a group of people that dwelled in the land around modern Moravia (a green and fertile farming land) - in the era of the Roman Empire. Some historians believe that the Osi were members of the Suevi - a large Germanic group that originally came from the area surrounding the Elbe river. The Suevi were extensive and consisted of tribes such as the Marcomanni, the Alemanni, Angles, and Quadi, amongst others. 

During the 6th Century BC, it is believed that many of the major tribes in the areas around Moravia chose to relocate to Italy, Gaul, and Iberia due to the threat of invasion from resettling Germanic tribes. However, some tribes resisted this threat and continued to live in and control the land around Moravia. It is thought that the Osi were one of the tribes that chose to migrate. They are thought to have resettled in the Silesia area of Poland as it was rich in iron, and they likely also decided to occupy the borders of land that now connect the modern countries of Ukraine and Slovakia - or as it was once known, Galicia. Due to their location, the Osi were surrounded geographically by a number of impressive ancient tribes - namely the Boii. 

Despite their close proximity to the Quadi and the Boii, the Osi’s way of life seems to have been more influenced by the Aravisci - a Celtic or Pannonian tribe. 

Where did the Osi originate?

Despite the belief that the Osi resided in Galicia, it is still difficult to pinpoint the specific terrain they occupied - or even their exact origins; it is relatively unknown whether they migrated from Pannonia, or else whether they were descendent of another migrating tribe. Some historians suggest that the Osi came from Germanic origins, but others debate that they were either Celtic or Dacian - and as such, were potentially culturally influenced by all of these tribes, as was a regular occurrence in Central Europe at that time. 

Tacitus, considered by many to have been one of the most significant Roman historians, documented the Osi as follows:

“Whether however, the Aravisci migrated into Pannonia from the Osi, a German race [Germanorum natione], or whether the Osi came from the Aravisci into Germany, as both nations still retain the same language, institutions, and customs, is a doubtful matter; for as they were once equally poor and equally free, either bank had the same attractions, the same drawbacks…”

However, it may be the Osi name that provides us with the most information regarding their origins. As such a brief title, without any suffixes that may provide details, the name implies that the ancient tribe may have originated at the mouth of a river, as in ancient Norse, it can be roughly translated as ‘River Mouth,’ and similarly so in Old English.

Yet, the first documents regarding the Osi location suggest differently than the Norse or Old English translations - but perhaps these documents belie the genesis of the Osi, as in Old English the Osi name could be translated as ‘beginning of a river.’ So it would be plausible that the Osi origins are more inland, at the source of a large river - potentially the rivers Oder, Vistula, and a tributary of the Danube, as they are thought to have settled in the foothills of the Carpathian mountains. 

What happened to the Osi?

The Osi were members of a larger group of tribes that occupied the land around the periphery of the Roman Empire. Although these civilisations were initially not regarded as significant warrior tribes, they may have been forced to become so after they came into conflict with the Roman Empire. 

However, it does not seem likely that the Osi were forced to become a combatant tribe, as they were dominated by the more dominant Germanic tribes around the time of the downfall of the Boii at the end of the first century. Thus, the Osi may have been forced to migrate from Slovakia due to Marcus Aurelius’ campaign in the Marcomanni Wars, and their territories were likely occupied shortly after by the Quadi. There may have been a minor sub-group of Osi that transitioned into Pannonia, but they were likely absorbed into the Pannonian tribe's cultures and customs.  

Would you like to know if you could be a descendant of the Osi tribe?

If you would like to find out more about your ancient heritage, you can discover whether you could be a descendent of the Osi tribe by uploading your raw DNA data onto the My True Ancestry Website. 

There were a number of notable wars waged against the Roman Empire during its reign of power, but perhaps one of the most impactful of which could be the violent Marcomannic Wars. These battles were led by the Marcomanni tribe, a Germanic people that distributed their influence across Europe and whose ascendancy can still be detected in the modern-day. 

What were the Marcomanni’s origins?

The Roman Empire coined the name “Gaul” with the intent of describing the Celtic tribes that - in their heyday - ruled over much of northern Europe - from the modern-day areas of north, east, and central France and into the land known as Germania. By the time the first century BC came to its midpoint, these tribes had started to splinter into different subgroups and were forced to resettle further south by the more dominant Germanic tribes from Scandinavia and the Baltic coast - the Marcomanni were one of these commanding Germanic groups. 

In historical records, the Marcomanni are first accounted for as accomplices of the Suebi of Arivistus - the leader of the large Germanic tribe - as he battled against Julius Caesar after they crossed the Rhine from modern-day Germany and attempted to resettle in Gaul (modern-day France).

Historians believe that the name ‘Marcomanni’ originates from the Proto-Germanic term for ‘markō - meaning ‘border’ or ‘boundary’ - and hence the current English word for march/mark, as in a marked frontier or district.

In modern English, the Marcomanni are referred to as the ‘Markmen’ - which is derived from their original Proto-Germanic name and essentially means ‘borderers.’ Interestingly, the name Marcomanni likely existed before the Romans had established dominion over the area of land around the Rhine (where the Marcomanni resided at that time), so which border they were thought to have originated near is still in question. According to the Roman politician and historian, Tacitus, as well as the Greek historian, Strabo, the Marcomanni were originally Suebian - a large Germanic tribe from the Elbe river, an area in what is currently known as Germany and the Czech Republic.

It is possible that the question around the genesis of the name ‘Marcomanni’ and the border that the term derived from can be answered by considering the divide that happened between these earlier Germanic tribes as the Celts expanded during their reign of dominance in the Iron Age. However, the ancient historian, Florus, reported evidence of the Marcomanni’s existence in an area that was not particularly close to these borders  - so perhaps this question of origin is still somewhat in debate. 

The persistence of the Marcomanni’s reputation throughout history may be to do with their role in the ruination of the Boii of the Boiohæmum - a tribe of Celts with a firm hold on Bohemia (the majority of modern Czechia) and whose control extended beyond the Pannonian Basin (the area of land surrounding the Danube).

The Marcomanni’s destruction of Boiohæmum may have been intended to be a takeover of a relatively unchanged civilisation, as they likely wished to establish themselves as a new nobility in an area already occupied by their allies; the Suevi tribe, and the Quadi . This theory is evidenced by the fact that the Marcomanni leader at that time had a Gaulish name - perhaps lending the supposition that the name Marcomanni or ‘Borderman’ came from the fact that they conquered the Boii border. After the Marcomanni’s domination, they changed their name accordingly and eventually assimilated into the Slavic Czechs many centuries later. 

The Marcomannic Wars

Between the years 166 and 180 AD, the Marcomanni entered an alliance with a number of other tribes, including the Quadi, Sarmatians, Goths, and Vandals, with the intent to overthrow the Roman Empire’s and Marcus Aurelius’ influence over Europe. These bloody conflicts helped expose the underbelly of Rome’s difficulties retaining power - with the success of their dominion over the continent, even extending as far as the north of England, the Romans became somewhat complacent with their power, and were living in relative tranquillity with the people whose lands they had overtaken.

Thus, during Marcus Aurelius’ reign, the powerful Germanic tribes saw their chance to reclaim strength. They marched south towards Rome and forced Aurelius to retaliate by initiating an attack on the banks of the Danube. This attack essentially prompted the Marcomannic wars, as the Marcomanni and the Quadi were considered to be the greatest threat to the Roman Empire. The twelve years of violent discord that ensued were eventually broken down into three separate stages: the first, second, and third Marcomannic wars.

Most of the Marcomannic Wars’ battles were centred around the Danube; the land was precious to both sides as it stretched beyond Austria, through the centre of Hungary, and towards the German border. One such battle consisted of three years of dispute in the fortress of Carnuntum - a fortress and capital of the providence that was home to more than 50,000 inhabitants. 

The Marcomannic Wars were a significant watershed for European history, as the Marcomanni caused the destruction of a range of Roman cities, steadily weakening the stronghold of the Roman Empire. The wars continued until Marcus Aurelius’ death, at which point somewhat of an impasse was reached; both sides had their victories, but there was no sign of resolution. Eventually, after Commodus - Aurelius’ son - became Emperor, Rome signed a treaty that effectively finished the wars. 

The Aftermath

In the centuries following the Marcomanni Wars, the Marcommani eventually turned to Christianity during the 4th century under the influence of their queen, Fritigil. This may have been the Marcomanni’s last action as an organised society, as shortly afterwards, the area of land around the Danube experienced a period of continued disturbance. 

Although most of Europe was going through a time of intense migration and turmoil, the area around the Pannonian basin became the centre of Atilla the Hun’s empire. It seems as though the Marcomanni and the Quadi retired their individual names at this point in time, returned to their original Suebi names, and achieved independence. However, they eventually succumbed to the constant wars against the Ostrogoths.  

Conclusion

If you would like to determine whether you could be a descendent of the powerful Germanic tribe, the Marcomanni, then My True Ancestry can help. Using your DNA results, we can determine your ancient history and connect you with a stronger sense of where you come from: upload your raw DNA data and start your journey for free!

The boom in interest in getting our DNA tested has led to an upsurge in availability and access to DNA testing in recent years. However, this has unfortunately led to a range of privacy concerns on behalf of users - such as “Will my family secrets be exposed?”, “Will my anonymity be exploited?” or “Will companies profit from my data without my knowledge?” 

However, My True Ancestry’s primary concern is to protect the privacy of our customers' digital and DNA data. 

In this post, we aim to address some of people’s biggest concerns regarding the safety of their data, as well as discuss the extent that My True Ancestry goes to in order to protect our customers' personal DNA information. 

Why Are People Concerned About the Privacy of Their Data?

In the wake of a partnership deal between a major genetic testing company and a for-profit company, there has been an outcry of concern from millions of previous customers about how their information will be further used - and perhaps their concern is founded. After all, by the very nature of taking a test to find out more about our DNA, we are opening a portal of insight into our ancestors, relatives, and even children. 

From many standpoints, there is nothing more personal than the information carried in our DNA. So, when we send away for a DNA testing kit, we trust the testing company with the most precious information. Even if these companies don’t intend to use their customers’ data without their knowledge, what would prevent security breaches from accessing it and using it to their advantage? After all, if your personal computer was hacked, you can change your passwords - however, you can’t change your DNA.  To address your concerns regarding the privacy of your DNA results and personal information, we’ll highlight some of the more common privacy risks around having your genetics tested below and also spotlight how My True Ancestry addresses these risks to ensure that your privacy is protected.

Hacking

Hacking is a concern that many of us face in our day-to-day lives - it is not a risk that is unique to the DNA testing industry. However, as we’ve mentioned, our DNA is highly personally valuable and individual, so it’s considerably different from just having our computer hacked. And major DNA testing companies have been hacked in the past - even if the DNA data itself wasn’t breached. But it did flag an apprehension for many people regarding the safety of their data. 

At My True Ancestry, we ensure your data protection by never requesting your personal details to create an account. If you wish, you can even choose to set up an anonymous email when registering for our service. What’s more, we delete our customer's DNA files as soon as processing is complete. Therefore, there is no possible way for your file to be linked to your anonymous profile and, thus, your true identity.

Outsider Profit

Surprisingly, most users of DNA testing companies choose to “opt-in” to share their data with outside partners. Perhaps these customers have a high opinion of these sites, so trust them with their private information. Nevertheless, the customers who opt-in will likely see no personal benefit from having their data used.

A further concern of allowing testing companies to use personal data is, that although these companies may feel like they have control over what their partnering companies will do with your information, they have no guarantee that customer DNA results won’t be distributed further. Once data has been shared beyond the DNA testing company, it’s not just as simple as requesting that they delete it. 

With My True Ancestry, there’s no chance that you will ever be requested to share your data. The service we provide was entirely created by the users and for the users. 

What’s more, the founders of My True Ancestry are true privacy advocates who designed and built the system from the ground up to be anonymous. This is why we don’t - at any stage of the process - ask for any personal information to create an account or to use the system. Not only does this design make it impossible to link a specific user to their DNA file, but since we also delete customer files once they are analyzed, we hold absolutely no research or profit interest for an independent company or business.

The Laws Around Protecting DNA Data 

There is an argument to be made that the specific laws designed to protect customer DNA data from being used by potential employers, for-profit companies, or insurance companies just aren’t comprehensive enough. And considering that the explosion of interest in the area is relatively new, there’s a strong possibility that this argument is valid. 

Although these laws might eventually catch up with the popularity of DNA testing, we strive to remain privacy advocates by never asking for personal information throughout the DNA testing process, and we further ensure anonymity by deleting customer’s files. 

In Conclusion - My True Ancestry is a truly safe method of exploring who you are by digging deeper into your past. We facilitate our customers' search for their ancestors in an unobtrusive, respectful manner that never compromises our formative ethical efforts to be privacy advocates.

Furthermore, as described in our Privacy Policy, MyTrueAncestry is GDPR compliant. Thus, in accordance, we carefully track all data from the moment it is uploaded until it is destroyed. All users have the option to destroy their kits or request their account to be deleted at any stage throughout the process.

Finally, we are aware of how many companies change their policies regarding privacy and customer data. My True Ancestry have committed to protecting our customers’ anonymity from the company's genesis - and this is not something that we ever plan to change. 

DNA analysis involves four main steps: extraction, quantitation, amplification, and capillary electrophoresis. 

The first of these steps - extraction - comprises breaking open the nucleus of a cell with the aim of releasing the DNA held within into a solution. During extraction, the DNA molecules are isolated from any other cellular material that could potentially influence the analysis, such as haemoglobin and indigo dyes, as these are considered inhibitors. There are two relatively customary extraction methods: Organic Extraction which  requires a minimum of three hours processing time, and robotic extraction which takes two hours at least.

The next stage of the DNA analysis is checking to make sure that the DNA extracted in step one is actually human. This quantitation stage assesses the quality and the amount of the human DNA present in the extraction - a particularly important step in DNA analysis as it determines the success of the subsequent stage of analysis. The process requires specific quantification kits and instruments, and usually takes up to three hours to complete.

Depending on the success of quantitation, the next phase of DNA analysis is amplification. This phase is particularly impressive, as it requires a technique called PCR - Polymerase Chain Reaction. This procedure recreates millions of duplicates of a specific DNA sequence in an incredibly short amount of time through repeatedly heating and cooling the sample in a  cyclical pattern that takes roughly three hours to complete. This phase of analysis is of particular importance regarding ancient DNA samples, as it is usually restricted regarding the amount and quality of the sample. Essentially, amplification is like making countless photocopies of a DNA sequence against which your DNA can be compared. 

Capillary Electrophoresis is the final stage of the basic DNA analysis, and it involves separating the vast amount of DNA “photocopies” created during amplification so as to allow the different molecules to be distinguished from each other. In order to do so, the capillary electrophoresis phase requires passing an electric current through the DNA sample; the separate DNA molecules carry a negative charge and the electric current forces them through a capillary which contains a gel-like substance. Once they pass through this capillary, they are attracted to a positive anode at the opposite side of the capillary. Small DNA molecules complete this process with more ease than the larger ones, so this stage permits the molecules to be categorised by size. The information gathered from this categorisation is then reviewed through a software programme and, thus, a DNA profile is finally developed.

Why My True Ancestry analysis is reliable   

MTA provides the highest level of analysis and information on your ancestry as we rely on consistent tools and software across all forms of DNA analysis - in comparison to many other sites that permit analysis of raw DNA data using whatever form of analysis tool that is easily available. This lack of discernibility on behalf of other sites regarding the type of tool that they employ means that the individual getting the analysis cannot know how their results were produced or analysed. 

Furthermore, My True Ancestry is always operational - this means that you can contact us whenever you choose, 24/7. In fact, we have not had a shutdown in operations since we went live in April 2019 - just another example of how reliable we are. No other similar site can report a similar record as they have all experienced periodic, or even frequent shutdowns.

Finally, My True Ancestry fastidiously ensures that only the best copies of DNA samples are used. When a new read, or a raw genetic material is made available for a sample of ancient remains, MTA replaces the old sample with this new one. This goes some way towards explaining the infrequent variability in results when there are new updates of samples. 

The Main Reasons Why My True Ancestry is Different From Any Other Service:

1. MTA focuses solely on ancient DNA (unlike other websites that centre on modern DNA).
2. MTA offers more data analysis tools (such as, Globes, Timelines, 3-D PCA, spider charts, etc.) than any other site.   
3. MTA provides a historical context to our samples. For example, we provide DNA Spotlights on individuals like the Cheddar Man, and time lapse history. This allows you to further your understanding and knowledge of your ancient past. 

If you are interested in advancing your awareness around genetics, you may find the following resources helpful:

• NCBI -National Centre for Biotechnology Information
• ENA - European Nucleotide Archive
• Anthrogenica
• Eupedia

…but don’t forget to read the rest of our blog articles of course!

We hope that you now feel that the concept of DNA analysis is less confusing or daunting in light of all the information that we have provided in this article. After all, you’re only a couple of steps away from finding out more about yourself from how your genetics links to the past.

Every one of us is unique beyond our surface individualities. We may consider our personalities, looks, and skills as the factors that make us distinct - but, aside from our experiences and circumstances, it is in fact our genetics that really determines how unique we actually are.

Our genes are the driving factor behind our appearances, they explain how our bodies function, and they even exert influence on our personalities - they are the operating instructions inside each and every one of our cells.

However, sometimes the process of analysing DNA may seem like a foreign language. One which you may be too tentative to venture into. However, the undertaking can be understood by breaking it down into the sum of its parts - the type of DNA that is analysed, what it can tell you, and the steps taken during a DNA analysis. 

What is Autosomal DNA?

Within the field of genetic genealogy, autosomal DNA refers to the DNA that is inherited from the autosomal chromosomes - that is, the 22 numbered chromosomes that humans have rather than the one chromosome associated with sex (the X and Y chromosome). The autosomal chromosomes are numbered in accordance to their size, thus, the lower numbers have a larger amount of genes held within the chromosome in comparison to the higher numbers. 

Autosomal DNA tests are widely used to provide links/matches with potential family members, and also for health reports which provide risk factors for certain diseases. However, more detailed information is required to determine the specifics of a genetic relationship - such as more DNA from different family members.  For genetic relationships that extend further than the fifth cousin, such as connections to ancient civilisations, then triangulation, Y-DNA, and mtDNA are usually used. 

What is a Y-DNA test?

A Y-DNA test involves testing the male patrilineal line of ancestry - the Y chromosome. This male chromosome is passed down from father, to son, to grandson, effectively unchanged. Thus, this form of DNA is passed down to the males in the family, but not daughters. Sometimes, a rare mutation to the chromosome can occur, but this often allows scientists to estimate the time when the mutation occurred and more accurately determine a shared ancestor, or a specific population. 

It is typically relatively easy for a male to follow his patrilineal ancestry, as they can follow their surname back through their family. However, if their background is atypical, then they may choose to go down the route of Y-DNA testing. If a woman wishes to do a Y-DNA test to determine their paternal DNA ancestry, they would have to request a related male family member from their paternal line to take a test for them. 

What is a mtDNA test?

In opposition to a Y-DNA test which tests the male line of ancestry, a mtDNA test - or mitochondrial DNA test - tracks an individual’s matrilineal line using the information held within the mitochondria of their cells. This type of DNA is passed through the mother-line to all of her children, regardless of whether they are male or female. What ‘s more, this DNA is virtually unchanged between generations. For these reasons, an mtDNA test can be taken by either men or women that are hoping to determine their ancestry. 

What is Triangulation?

The process of triangulation is used in many fields, including psychology, map-making, etc., but it is used within genetics to determine an ancestral haplotype (the set of DNA variations that are typically inherited together). This means that a shared ancestor can be found through comparing an individual's known genetic relationships. 

We hope that you now feel that the concept of DNA analysis is less confusing or daunting in light of all the information that we have provided in this article. After all, you’re only a couple of steps away from finding out more about yourself from how your genetics links to the past! 

Many years ago, an eminent bishop - Peder Pedersen Winstrup - was buried on the grounds of Lund Cathedral, Sweden. When Winstrup’s coffin was first exhumed, it was noted that it contained an unusual bundle. Still, it wasn’t until centuries later, when the coffin was X-rayed, that scientists were stunned to realise that Bishop Winstrup was buried with the remains of a fetus.

This finding left many people wondering who Bishop Peder Winstrup was and why was he buried with the body of a child?

Who was Bishop Peder Lund Winstrup?

Peder Winstrup was born in 1605 in the then capital of Denmark/Norway, Copenhagen. It is clear that Winstrup was influenced by his father, as Peder Jensen Vinstrup was the Bishop of Sjaelland and also a professor of theology at the University of Copenhagen. What’s more, once his father passed away when Winstrup was nine years old, his mother went on to marry her husband’s replacement as bishop. 

Peder Winstrup grew up to be an accomplished man; he studied at the University of Rostock, Wittenberg, Leipzig, the University of Jena, Germany, and he graduated from the University of Copenhagen. Also, like the male figureheads in his family, Winstrup became a prominent church figure, and he was assigned as the royal chaplain to King Christian IV. Eventually, he was made bishop of Lund, Scania (a province in Denmark) in the year 1638, but his prowess did not stop there; not only was Bishop Winstrup quite politically prominent during his lifetime, but he also went on to become one of the founding fathers of Lund University in 1666.

Winstrup initially married Anne Marie Ernstratter Baden and had five children with her, before going on to marry a noblewoman - Dorothea von Anderson - who is believed to have been very pro-danish and politically influential in her own way in Scania. Von Anderson’s dedication to Denmark may have caused conflict between the couple when Winstrup was made noble by the Swedish King Charles X Gustav when his land was taken from Danish control after the Treaty of Roskilde in 1658. In fact, von Anderson continued to communicate confidentially with factions of the Danish government and created a great deal of difficulty for her husband in Sweden when she publicly stated that all Swedes were dogs, and their children should not be granted entry to any scholarship programs in Scania.

Bishop Peder Lund Winstrup passed away in December 1679 and was buried in the grounds of Lund Cathedral - as he would have undoubtedly have wanted. His coffin was exhumed in the 19th and 20th centuries, and to archaeologists’ surprise, Winstrup’s remains were exceptionally well-preserved.

What was found in Bishop Winstrup’s coffin?

In 2012, the decision was made to move the Bishop’s coffin to a new site. Thus, scientists were offered the chance to study Winstrup’s remains before he was reburied. They conducted X-rays and CT scans of the body and examined the objects in the coffin in more detail, such as the clothing, relics, and various plants and insects.

The scientists were surprised to discover that despite the incredible condition of Winstrup’s body, he hadn’t been embalmed. Instead, he was placed atop a mattress-like object which was filled with herbs such as juniper and wormwood. What’s more, the bishop’s head was rested on a cushion filled with hops. These plants helped retain the remain’s condition - even including the clothes that the Bishop was dressed in as their colours had merely faded over time. There are potentially other elements that contributed to this remarkable level of preservation - the Bishop had likely lost a lot of weight prior to passing away, and after he died in December, his body was placed in a cool room to allow for viewing. However, the herbs probably played the most significant role in his preserved state.

This analysis of the coffin’s contents also led to the conclusion that Winstrup likely died of pneumonia and that he also had a variety of ailments caused by a high-fat diet. It was also clear that he had a sweet tooth, as his teeth were in poor condition with many cavities, and there was a bag containing his lost ones buried with him in the coffin.

Despite these interesting finds, they were somewhat overshadowed when the X-ray and CT scans revealed that the Bishop wasn’t buried alone. The small, linen-wrapped object at the bottom of the coffin was actually a fetus - a baby who was stillborn at roughly five or six months of development. The bundle was placed amongst the herbs between Winstrup’s lower legs, and it was originally thought that the baby was snuck into his coffin in a desperate attempt to ensure sanctified burial. However, despite initial assumptions, a further DNA analysis of the fetus’ remains revealed that the Bishop and the baby were related.

The scientists at Lund extracted DNA from the Bishop’s and baby’s femurs, ascertaining that the baby was male and that they shared approximately 25% of the same genetic material. It was further determined that the baby was related to Winstrup on the paternal side of the family, as there was only a Y-chromosome match. These findings suggest that the Bishop could have been a grandparent, uncle, or even potentially a half-sibling to the baby.

In an attempt to narrow down the relationship, the Bishop’s genealogical records kept in Stockholm were examined in detail. By studying the paternal line, the researchers were able to narrow the search down to the children that he had with his first wife, thus determining that Winstrup was most likely the baby’s grandfather. However, there are still some questions around this conclusion, as there is a slight chance that the baby could have been that of Winstrup’s sister, and therefore he could have been his uncle.

Conclusion

It was not uncommon at this time for people to place the remains of children into a coffin with an adult. Furthermore, the rushed manner with which the child seemed positioned in the coffin ties in with the likelihood that a relative placed him there in the hopes that he would be buried in sanctified grounds with his prominent and highly regarded relative - a theory that is backed up by analysis of the Bishop’s DNA. In fact, thanks to this analysis, you too can find out if you have a DNA link to the prominent Bishop Peder Winstrup with My True Ancestry.

In February 2021, the oldest DNA in the world was retrieved from the remains of a mammoth tooth that was over a million years old - considerably older than Viking DNA and even predating the existence of humans.

Yet, whereas we may not have been able to sequence the DNA in the mammoth tooth in previous years, traditional digging-in-the-dirt archaeology has evolved recently due to the advent of modern science techniques such as archaeogenetics.

This fascinating field melds contemporary genetics with archaeological studies - two completely disparate disciplines - with the aim of helping us to create a captivating picture of our past and where we come from.

Archaeogenetics makes it possible for anyone, from any culture, to determine their unique origins and further understand how we don’t come from one unique background. We are a melting pot of cultures, identities, and roots - making us even more individual than we may have believed previously.

But what exactly does archaeogenetics involve, and how can My True Ancestry help you use it to your advantage?

How does archaeogenetics work?

Archaeogenetics can be defined as the study of the past through the modern techniques of molecular genetics. It essentially connects the two fields of genetics and archaeology. In fact, archaeologist Colin Renfrew originally coined the term in the 1990s to encompass the Greek word for ancient - archaois - and genetics. Hence, archaeogenetics - ancient genetics. 

When most of us consider our genetic make-up, we generally only think about our nuclear DNA - that is, the mixture of DNA that we inherited from our parents. However, mitochondrial DNA, which is passed down through the female line, is susceptible to very little change or mutations. This DNA is astounding stable and remains unchanged from one generation to the next. Hence, this level of consistency means that this form of DNA allows us a concrete insight into our ancient origins.

Whereas we may not be able to trace our heritage back to one specific person, archaeogenetics instead allows us to determine the group of people we are descendants from - right back to the point in history when our species began to separate into distinct groups and cultures. 

All the information that we can glean from archaeogenetics has been taken from specimens of blood or tissue from current and past populations. The analysis of the ancient genomes are so exact that it even allows us further insight into bygone individuals sex and appearance.

Take Cheddar Man, for example; a ten-thousand-year-old skeleton that was unearthed in Somerset, England. Through archaeogenetics, scientists were able to determine that Cheddar Man had the unusual combination of dark hair and blue eyes. Yet, as interesting as these insights into appearance are, archaeogenetics allows us an even more valuable understanding of our relatedness to ancient populations. 

In contrast to how samples taken from modern civilisations allows us to understand how current populations connect, potentially even more interestingly, archaeogenetics allows us to study how our modern DNA can be linked to the samples of ancient DNA. Thus, the field enables us to compare and analyse information on the DNA from different ethnic groups from around the world and corroborate accounts from historical sources. In fact, this DNA data has been reconciled with the findings of archaeologists, linguists, and paleoanthropologists to shed further light on the past and our ancestry. 

How can My True Ancestry Help?

At My True Ancestry, our passion is to help you unveil your ancient origins through the use of advanced archaeogenetic technology. As we discussed in our previous article, “Make the Most of Your DNA Test,” it is possible to check your DNA against ancient DNA samples to uncover whether you have a genetic link with an ancient civilisation. 

MTA takes advantage of the most cutting edge techniques available to geneticists - including accessing the most prime examples of archaeological remains and latest software techniques - to process the ancient DNA, produce “snapshots” to which modern DNA samples can be compared, and perform raw DNA comparisons at the SNP level of ancient to modern DNA. 

Also, our DNA database is constantly expanding and being further enriched with new DNA samples.  This continuous expansion means that there is no limit to what we can figure out from your DNA aside from the speed to which archaeologists and researchers can increase their raw data set. This data set typically comes from studies that are funded for specific medical reasons, and are thus limited by the quality of viable DNA from dig sites.

The quality of this DNA is dependent on environmental factors such as weather, as well as a specific societies burial practices - such as avoiding cremation for example. Finally, MTA adds additional historical context to our DNA and provides details that cannot be found elsewhere, such as the latest data science techniques, including 3-D PCA and Spider charts.

MTA can match your raw DNA against hundreds of ancient DNA samples through our advanced archaeogenetic technologies. All that you need to do to start your personal journey into your history and where you came from is to upload your raw DNA data. In less than ten minutes, you’ll get your results and the answers you need. 

The following is a testimonial from one of our users:
“It draws out more ancestry for you to explore, and patterns that you see in other DNA tests get more focus. That way you can see that these hidden, background, trace ancestries show up again but explored in greater detail.”

Finding out more about the past and the cultures that you are descendent from may not change your identity or sense of self, but it can enrich your life, improve your knowledge, and inspire you to learn more about other civilisations. When science has evolved to the extent that we can find out so much about where we came from with such ease, there’s no reason for you not to start your journey with My True Ancestry today.

In recent years, a cultural phenomenon around unlocking the secrets held within our DNA has taken the world by storm - and many people regard the findings of DNA results with an almost religious enthusiasm.

This ardour most likely lies in the fact that our DNA provides people with the means for answering questions about where we come from.

The more that technology and science advance, the more we can find out about ourselves from the comfort of our own homes. We no longer need to go to a lab or have the equivalent set up in our kitchens to analyse our DNA - personalised medicine does the work for us. 

This ease of access means that anybody can experience the exhilaration of getting their DNA results; we all have the equal opportunity to learn information about ourselves that we may not have the chance to otherwise; whether we may have unknown family connections, interesting ancestral lineage, or even inherited risk factors to our health.

Unfortunately, many people are unaware of the wealth of potential information that they have in their hands - as well as what they can do with it. Instead, they may let their results sit and gather dust instead of pursuing further analysis. However, taking one more step with your DNA results can truly unlock the secret to who you are and where you come from. 

What can you find out through an initial DNA test?

Genetic testing studies your DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) - the hereditary material that we all carry in our cells. Most of our DNA can be found in the nucleus of the cells, but more can be located in the mitochondria. Essentially, DNA is the chemical structure that provides your body with instructions on how to function. 

Over thirty million people have gotten their DNA tested. The majority of DNA testing companies tailor their services to people’s curiosities around ancestry, relatedness, and medical concerns, but there has also been a recent surge of interest in the area of health and fitness. 

However, there are also a number of other reasons why someone might decide to get an initial DNA test; for example, understanding how to get the most out of your genetics for health purposes, finding out the best foods for our genetic makeup, what form of exercise to do based on our genetics, and how to help your sleep patterns. 

We’re such strong believers in the power of our genetics that a recent study conducted at Stanford University found that when researchers simply informed people of certain genetic predispositions for specific characteristics (regardless of whether the individual had the predisposition or not), that this actually caused these individuals to act accordingly to their newfound traits. Because they believed that their genetics predetermined their behaviour, they altered their actions accordingly. This effect isn’t to suggest that our genetics don’t have a significant impact on our traits - of course, they do - but it also demonstrates our vested interest in understanding our specific history and characteristics beyond what we can find out through personal or familial means. 

However, surprisingly, once people get their DNA results, most of them just stop there - they don’t realise that there is a wealth of information available at their fingerprints: their raw DNA data. 

Why it’s Important to Take Your Results One Step Further

It’s possible to purchase ancestry DNA kits from a wide range of different testing companies. The results of such tests provide people with knowledge regarding their heritage. However, such findings tend to oversimplify people’s rich and varied histories as most modern populations are diverse mixes of more ancient civilisations.

Therefore, although most companies that offer DNA testing permit their users to download their raw DNA data, many people stop at this point as they believe that further analysis of these intricate data sets can only be done by genetic experts or else would require a lot of money. Thankfully, this is no longer the case. 

With My True Ancestry, you can learn more about your unlocked potential and family history from your raw data set and even discover information about your ancient ancestors. For example, you may find out that you’re related to the Ancient Egyptians, a Viking warrior, the gladiators of ancient Rome, or another ancient and influential civilisation. 

What My True Ancestry Can Offer

Although modern DNA analysis can be instrumental in helping you to understand your genetics and how it may link you to certain modern populations, or in figuring out how to make the most out of your health and fitness, My True Ancestry permits a deeper dive into your history by allowing you to compare yourself against ancient DNA. This form of analysis enables you a more rich, comprehensive, and layered representation of who you are as a person - it’s your personal link to the past. 

Our genome might not be the answer to everything about who we are as individuals, but it certainly can help us to build a deeper understanding of our genetic blueprint and how it can influence our actions and behaviours.

If you would like My True Ancestry’s support when further analysing your raw DNA, then our techniques are compatible with Nebula Genomics, Date Labs, Ancestry, 23andMe, My Heritage, Family Tree DNA, and LivingDNA. Our basic analysis is free, so there’s nothing stopping you from delving deeper into who you are. After all, how thrilling would it be to discover that you’re distantly related to a fearsome and influential historical civilisation from many centuries ago?

Start your free journey now.

We’re all familiar with the Romans ceaseless battle success, but there was one population – one man in particular – who even the mighty Caesar was threatened by...

Who were the Gauls?

The Gauls were a tribe of Celts that inhabited France, Belgium, Luxemburg, Switzerland, and parts of the Netherlands and Germany – the territory known then as Gaul. Originally, all Celtic groups were known as the Celts up until the 3^rd century BC, at which time a sub-group invaded Macedonia, Greece, and parts of Asia and they were first denoted individually as Galata or Galli.

There is some debate about the etymology of the name Gauls; some claim that it originated from the Greek word for milk, inspired by the skin tone of the group of Celts who invaded Greece. Although, consideration is also given to whether it might have stemmed from the French word “Gallia” the roots of which are German in origin and could be translated as “foreigner”.

You may still come across the use of Gauls or Celts interchangeably for this population, however, Gauls is thought to be a self-appointed name that differentiates this group of Celts from the Irish, the Gaels, the Britons, and the Galacian Celts. If you would like to know more about the other divisions of the Celts, then this previous article explains who they were in more detail.

The Gauls in battle

The Gauls had a fierce reputation on the battlefield, and by the 4^th Century BC, Gallic warriors had settled along the Po Valley in Germany and had invaded central Italy, leading most Italians to fear the Gauls and their prowess.

However, the only population that the Italians feared more, was the Germans, and they were desperate for them not to increase in power. As they believed that the Germans were readying to make the states of Gaul theirs, the Romans knew that they had to strike. Thus, Julius Caesar enlisted forces from the Gauls and together they drove the Germans out of the area.

After the insurgence of the Germans in Gaul was brought under control, Caesar began to enforce the institution of Roman traditions, culture, and laws in the region. However, the Gauls refused to lie down and accept being a conquered nation and the Eburones tribe attempted to revolt against the Romans dominance.

Unfortunately, Caesar took no mercy, and used the Eburones to make an example of to the rest of the Gauls; he attacked them, burned their lands, and sold any survivors into slavery. 

What Caesar didn’t bank on during his subjugation was Vercingetorix, the son of an aristocratic Gallic chief, and a highly regarded warrior and member of his tribe the Averni. Vercingetorix was among the Gauls that Caesar employed to push the German forces back, and as a result, he learned the skills of Roman warfare. In the aftermath of the Roman’s overtaking of Gaul, Vercingetorix wasn’t planning to forget these tactics in a hurry.

The valour of Vercingetorix

Vercingetorix wasn’t a birth name, as the Gauls believed that giving others your true name gave them power over you, but instead the title he is known by. It means “Victor of a Hundred Battles” and he is considered to be the first national hero of the area now known as France due to his unwavering defence of the land.

Even Vercingetorix’s enemies marvelled at his strength and valour, as Caesar referred to him as “a man of boundless energy, he terrorized waverers with the rigours of an iron discipline.”

After Caesar had defeated the Eburones, he returned to Italy for the summer months, allowing Vercingetorix the opportunity to rally an army against the remaining Roman troops in Gaul.

Upon news of this revolt, Caesar attempted a hasty return, but the unfamiliar weather conditions and the barricades that Vercingetorix put in place meant that Caesar wasn’t going to triumph easily.

A twenty-seven-day siege soon followed suit in the town of Avaricum. The Gauls did their best to push the Roman forces back, but their approach was relentless.

Eventually, surrounded by the Romans and their battle towers, ramps, and terrace – all of which were built in under a month – the Gauls attempted to flee. Sadly, approximately forty thousand Gauls were massacred in Avaricum - women and children included.

In time, after relentless Roman sieges on the town of Alesia (now known as Dijon), Vercingetorix ended up trapped within its walls with his men. Despite defending their land and attacking the Romans as much as possible, Vercingetorix and his army were forced to surrender to Caesar. For five years, the great warrior was confined in the Tullianum before being ceremoniously slaughtered in Caesar’s name.

Want to find out whether you’re a descendent of the fearsome Gauls? Find out today with My True Ancestry.

The British Isles have always been considered an exceptionally diverse land due to the range of civilisations that strived to make it their homeland.

Although, despite the number of populations that settled there, it is perhaps the Germanic tribes that had the most cultural influence on the country. 

Whilst most people would initially consider the Anglo-Saxons as the primarily influential Germanic tribe, the Jutes undoubtedly had one of the greatest significant impacts on the British culture. Notwithstanding the varying difficulties that the Jutes encountered before their settlement in Britain, they were nevertheless welcomed into their new home due to their expertise in warfare, seafaring, and trading. Due to this valuable skill set, the Jutes quickly made themselves an inextricable element of the British fabric. You can upload your raw DNA data to find out for free whether you could be a descendent of this prestigious tribe.

Who were the Jutes? 

The Germanic tribes were a varied group of ancient peoples who shared a similar language and culture. Perhaps the most well known of these tribes would be the Franks, Angles, Saxons, Vandals, Ostrogoths, and Visigoths.

Shortly after the Roman Empire lost some of its dominance over Europe during the Iron Age, these Germanic tribes began to spread out across Europe to settle. It was, in actuality, the Roman historian Tacitus, who first mentioned the Jutes as “Eudoses” in 98 AD. They were also referred to as Lutae, Eote, Yte, and Ytene over various historical writings. It is likely that “Jutes” is an English mutation of one of the original forms of their names. 

It is believed that the Jutes’ original name forms were derived from interpretations of the word “giants”. Although this was probably a reference to their notable height, it was also likely to do with their great influence over many different cultures at that time.

The tribe’s dominance likely stemmed from their collective skills at warfare and sailing - as eventually, their mastery led to other tribes and leaders requesting their support in battle in exchange for land. 

Where did the Jutes come from?

Although there is little recorded evidence of the Jutes’ existence on the European continent, it is believed that they originally settled in Denmark, while the other notable Germanic tribes made their territories in Sweden, England, Italy, Gaul, North Africa, and Spain. In fact, it is widely thought that the Jutes gave their name to the biggest continental section of Denmark - the Jutland Peninsula. The Jutes that chose not to migrate to England from Denmark were likely assimilated into the Danes. 

Despite this strong belief that the Jutes originated in Denmark, there is still a widespread disagreement on where they came from. In fact, the analysis of goods found in their graves provided little evidence of a connection between the Jutes of Kent, Isle of Wight, and Hampshire and those believed to have settled in Denmark/Jutland. However, this could possibly be due to the remaining Jutes’ assimilation into the Danish culture after the majority migrated to distant lands. 

One of the other theories around the Jutes’ origins centres around the premise that they were a mountain tribe from Scandinavia. There was a group of peoples from the Alfheim region who evolved to become tall and sturdy due to the demands of the landscape in which they lived - which earned them the nickname “the giants.” This theory has some credibility; if it were true, then it would mark the homeplace of the Jutes as the straight between Norway and Sweden - thus providing relatively easy access to Denmark. 

Historical accounts of the Jutes

The reason why we know as much as we do about such an ancient civilisation is likely mostly due to the works of one historical figure: The Venerable Bede.

Considered one of England’s original historians, the Benedictine monk wrote a comprehensive account of the Anglo-Saxon migration to the British Isles in his significant document: The Ecclesiastical History of the English People.

Through this piece of work, Venerable Bede created a thorough and largely valid idea of who the Jutes were as a tribe. Along with other significant authors of this time, Bede stated that: “Those who came over were of the three most powerful nations of Germany—Saxons, Angles, and Jutes. From the Jutes are descended the people of Kent, and of the Isle of Wight, and those also in the province of the West Saxons who are to this day called Jutes, seated opposite to the Isle of Wight.” Thus, Bede was in agreement that the Jutes were one of the most influential Germanic tribes. 

In another of The Venerable Bede’s works, he speaks of both the Anglo-Saxons’ and the Jutes’ settlements in Britain and how tumultuous the period was due to Vortigern - the king of the Britons at that time and the person who invited both the Anglo-Saxons and the Jutes over to England. Vortigern apparently extended this invitation in the hopes of protecting his land against the Picts (a Scottish tribe). Thus, he contacted two warrior brothers from the Angles and the Jutes - Hengist and Horsa - and promised them land in reward for their services. The warrior brothers were triumphant in leading their armies against the Picts and defeated them due to their renowned military prowess. 

Potential reasons for the Jutes’ migration

Aside from aiding Vortigern in battle, there are a number of other possible reasons for the Jutes’ eagerness to migrate to England. Archaeological evidence has found signs of mass flooding on some of the possible Jute homelands, which potentially forced them to make use of their sea skills and voyage in search of safer lands.

Furthermore, Jutland was likely experiencing a period of political precariousness, as new dynasties were fighting amongst each other for power and land. For these reasons, Britain probably became a greener pasture for many Jutes in their search for stability. 

In comparison to the lands they left, the Jutes also likely felt welcome upon their arrival in Britain. Thanks to their military abilities, they were given land on which to settle in coastal Britain, particularly in Kent, the Isle of Wight, and Hampshire. However, due to a particularly persistent Roman influence over Kent - which was evidenced by the jewellery and other artefacts unearthed there - the Jutes’ power faded quite quickly over this area in particular. Yet, their reputation persevered in the regions of their other settlements, and they ultimately changed the trajectory of the area’s politics forever. Similarly, the Angles and the Saxons also continued to exert influence over their settlement areas, cementing the Germanic tribes’ impact on Britain. 

Conclusion

The Jutes quickly became an inextricable part of British DNA shortly after their arrival on the country’s soil; despite the debates concerning their origins, there can be no doubt regarding the Jutes’ influence on the future of England, as they cemented themselves into the political and cultural fabric of the land.

If you would like to know whether you could be a descendent of the prestigious Germanic tribe - the Jutes - then you can upload your raw DNA data to find out with My True Ancestry.

When we envision ancient Italy, most of us go straight to images of the ancient Romans and their prowess in battle and architecture. However, the pathway to power was not an easy one for the Romans, as they had many thorns in their side on their journey. Most notably, their fiercest opposition came from their neighbour to the south: the fearsome Samnites. 

Who were the Samnites?

During the Iron Age, groups of tribes migrated by sea from Illyria into the Italian peninsula and made the coastal areas and much of central Italy their home. These groups of people became collectively known as the Italics.

One particular group of Italics who settled along the southern Apennines were the Samnites. It is widely thought that this tribe of people originated from the north of Europe and were likely Celtic or Indo-European in origin. 

The Samnites spoke the Oscan language, which is thought to be similar to the Umbrian and Volscian languages but also bears similarities to Latin. It is also believed that the Samnites were related to a number of other ancient tribes - such as the Pentri, the Carracini, the Hirpini, and the Caudini. One further group known as the Frentani were also possibly Samnite in origin, but they lived and governed themselves separately. 

Although nowadays we understand the relationship between the Romans and the Samnites to be combative, it clearly was not always so, as the Romans decided to name the southern and central regions of Italy Samnium after the people who occupied it.

In fact, it is thought that in the year 354 BC, an agreement was reached between these two powerful civilisations. This agreement stated that the Liris River would become the land divider that would determine the area that each group had influence over and the document is thought to be the first definite historical note of the Samnite’s existence. 

The Samnites garnered a fierce reputation for themselves, which likely originated with the hardy lifestyle that they had to grow accustomed to - the unrelenting terrain of Samnium was notoriously difficult to navigate.

However, the landscape also provided them with a means of survival, as much of the territory was very fertile and thus was ideal for agriculture. Animal rearing - such as cows, pigs, and sheep was central to the Samnite lifestyle, as they not only used them for food, but also for trading for other goods.

Furthermore, the Samnites also relied on growing crops for their economic development. Finally, due to their expanding population, the Samnites were able to expand by developing trade links with other Italian tribes and thus improving their agricultural and urban expansion. 

The Samnite Wars

Despite the agreement reached between the Samnites and Romans regarding who governed what territories, the period of peace between both tribes did not last for very long.

Due to the Samnite’s fearsome reputation, a neighbouring tribe called the Campanians worried about the possibility that the Samnites would attempt to take their land, and therefore approached the Romans to ask for protection. In response, the Romans supported the Campanian’s crusade and sent a mission to the Samnites to command that they abstain from any incursions on Campanian land.

The Samnites answered by spurning the Roman’s orders, and this led to the beginning of the First Samnite War. It took many battles for the Samnites to realise that they were out-forced, but they eventually reconstituted their old land borders at the Liris River. However, Rome retained ownership over Campania. 

Again, peace did not last long between the Samnites and Romans. Friction was created again - approximately seventeen later - and led to the Second Samnite War. This war was considerably more taxing in terms of time and resources than the first war, as it lasted for over twenty years and was more vicious - for this reason, it also became known as The Great Samnite War. 

The Great War was marked by many large battles, as well as many periods of inactivity - but it is mostly remembered for the Roman’s humiliation after surrendering to the Samnites at the Caudine Forks. This embarrassment did not sit well with the proud Romans, and thus they were set on getting even with the Samnites.

Battles between both great forces continued to rage, and other tribes such as the Etruscans became involved until peace was once again established at the Battle of Bovianum, where the Romans defeated the Samnites. The Romans went on to force the Samnites out of Bovianum, Fregellae, and Apulia.

Once again, harmony was not on the cards for long between the Samnites and Romans, as a mere six years later, war broke out once more. The Lucanians approached the Romans in search of support against the Samnites, and the Etruscans were rallying against Rome’s increasing power. These building tensions over land ownership led to the Battle of Sentium, and the Battle of Aquilonia - in which the Samnites were defeated. Comparatively, this Third Samnite War was considerably shorter than the others; however, it culminated with the assimilation of the Samnites into the Roman civilisation and Rome finally becoming the leading power in Italy. 

Further rebellions

Despite the Roman’s considerable power, this did not completely prevent the Samnites from continuing to rebel against their control. They continued to rally against Rome, for example, fifty years later when they confidently sided with Hannibal before his defeat in the Second Punic War. However, despite this further loss, the Samnites still refused to admit that they had been bested.  

The Social War consisted of the Samnites searching for support in the form of other major Italian tribes after the Romans refused to grant them Roman citizenship. Bovianum - the Samnites most prominent city - even briefly became a separate state until the Roman’s triumph once again in 88 BC. Therefore, in order to prevent further conflicts, the Romans granted the Samnites and other Italic tribes the citizenship that they wanted. 

Proving themselves as the ever-present pain to the Romans, the Samnites were still not quite ready to retire in their attempts to overthrow the superpower, and they joined forces with the Marians during the civil wars of Gaius Marius and Sulla. However, fate did not look kindly on the Samnites, and Sulla defeated the Marians and Samnites at the Battle of Colline Gate. The outcome for the Samnites was ruinous, as many were killed in battle. They never recovered from this assassination, and, eventually, they dissolved and were no longer considered a distinct population as they were slowly absorbed into Roman society.

Conclusion

If you would like to know whether your DNA could be linked to the fearsome and determined Samnites, upload your raw DNA data on our website - your results will be ready in less than 10 minutes!

As humans, we are highly visual creatures that often require a visual representation of our past before we can really engage and connect with it.

For this reason, through a fine balance between science and art, scientists have endeavoured to reconstruct the features of our ancient ancestors as accurately as possible in order to aid our understanding of our evolution, and, also - in a way - to bring our predecessors back to life. This process has been especially helpful when considering the story of Aak the Iron Age Boy.

The discovery of Aak

In the town of Uitgeest in the Netherlands, alongside a ring ditch which is believed to have been a burial mound, the grave of a young child was unearthed. DNA analysis and radiocarbon dating deduced that the skeleton belonged to a 9 year old boy and estimates that he lived in approximately 200 BC, and therefore the Late Iron Age - a tumultuous time in Ancient Frisia, when  the Roman Empire was expanding and claiming  Celtic and Germanic states for their own.

Thus, quite aptly, the boy was named Aak, meaning iron or ‘made of iron.’  At that time, Ancient Frisia was a coastal area of low lands and small islands located on the path between the Romans and Germania.

Much about this burial site remains a mystery to scientists, such as the discovery of the remains of two cows that were entombed in the same mound at a later date, as well as the fact that the surrounding land contained even more unusual graves. Furthermore, the position in which Aak was buried is considered strange; he was arranged in a supine position with his legs bent at the knees and drawn up to the same level as his head.

The reconstruction of Aak

Despite the mysterious elements around Aak's burial, thanks to the art and science of facial reconstruction, we are able to visualise what the boy would have looked like during his lifetime. This includes what Aak might have worn - the era in which he lived is strongly associated with farming in the area, so one of the models of Aak was dressed in a shepherd’s robe and given a staff as well as a goat to help people fully envision how he lived.

What’s more, in an attempt to demonstrate to the local children that our ancient ancestors were not so disparate from modern people, another reconstruction of Aak was dressed in contemporary clothing which depicted him as streetwise.

Nevertheless, it is the privilege of being able to see Aak’s face which allows us to connect with him in a more personal way. In order to do so, experts from the Hildes House museum began by taking a 3D replica of Aak’s skull, which they scanned, printed, and then painstakingly fabricated his bone structure, muscles, and skin over based on what they knew about his origin, gender, and age at time of death.

After the reconstruction of Aak was unveiled, he became hugely popular, and was widely discussed in the national press, on the evening news, in magazines, radio, and was even made a special guest on a nighttime talk show. The reason for his acclaim was likely to do with the fact that people felt uniquely connected to one of their ancient ancestors in such a visual and accessible manner.

Conclusion

Do you have DNA links to ancient Frisians? If you would like to know whether you could have a DNA connection with them and, specifically, Aak the Iron Age Boy, then My True Ancestry can help. Using your DNA results, we can link you to your ancient ancestors and who you truly are.

Archaeological digs have the potential to be exciting workspaces; however, the discovery of chariot burial sites often tops most archeologists’ lists of finds. These burial sites are relatively rare, but they help conjure enough of an understanding of the Iron Age nobility and their wheeled apparatus to create a great deal of exhilaration when untombed. 

How did chariot burials originate?

Chariot burials were a unique form of internment in which the person who passed away was entombed along with their chariot.

Although the earliest of these burials were originally from the Yamna culture in Russia, the practice also extended to the time of the Yin Dynasty in China. However, the most notable chariot burials tended to be from the Iron Age in Europe.

The reason for this may be due to the prominent role that chariots played in the lifestyles of Europeans at that time - especially for the Celts, as they made use of the chariot in battle from early on in their formation. 

The role of the chariot in Celtic warfare became more prominent during the La Tene Period, as the tribe began to engage in an increasing number of small-scale battles between more established and elite warriors who fought predominantly with the Celtic longsword.

This large, straight-bladed, and double-edged weapon evolved over the years to become shorter and more suited to larger armies. However, the earlier version of the sword was befited to fighting at a distance, and thus, chariots were involved to suit this fast and frenzied form of battle. 

These chariots were usually two-wheeled and typically nimble, as they were designed to maneuver in many directions in an attempt to break the initial ranks of their opposition. In fact, it was not uncommon for the warriors to jump from their chariots to engage in hand-to-hand combat before returning to them in order to retreat. These combatants were often regarded as notable characters in their culture, and as a result, upon their death, their burial typically reflected this regard. 

What did chariot burials look like?

The elite of the Iron Age were often buried in vast tombs atop their two-wheeled chariots, usually under a form of a burial mound. As expected, the wooden elements of the chariots decayed over time, yet the metal ones, such as the iron wheel covers and harnesses, remained intact. 

Men were usually buried with their weapons, whereas the women were dressed in expensive jewelry. This practice often involved entombing the horse and personal possessions along with the individual, most likely in an attempt to equip them for the afterlife. What’s more, the dead were accompanied by well-used weapons, and the chariots displayed signs of needing repair, which demonstrates their battle prowess in life. 

Chariot burial tombs have been unearthed in a range of different countries, such as Ireland, England, and Italy, yet one of the most extraordinary examples of such was recently discovered on a motorway being constructed between Charleville-Mezieres and Rocroi in France - the Bucy-le-Long chariot burial site.

The Bucy-le-Long chariot burial

The Bucy-le-Long burial chamber was originally covered with wood which was supported by the walls, and decorative bronze elements were found to have still been attached to the wood of the shaft. The remains of two small horses were also discovered, with their bones still remarkably intact. Even more interestingly, this particular chariot burial seemed to contain the remains of a female of high societal status, as she was dressed in an ornate torque and earrings.

Furthermore, she was interred with items such as a needle and spindle, a set of tweezers, and a scalpel. Questions have been raised about the woman’s position in society - her chariot and horses’ harnesses were decorated with bronze detailing, and the chariots showed significant signs of wear and tear - thus, she may have been a prominent warrior.

All of these findings at Bucy-le-Long are significant in comparison to other chariot burial sites, as they further the understanding around this tradition. 

The role of the Gallic Wars in chariot graves

It may be the case that the discovery of chariot burial sites across such a vast area of land may be due to the influence of the Gallic Wars - a series of battles waged by Julius Caesar against the people of Gaul (modern-day France, Belgium, and Germany). Caesar conquered parts of France and Belgium and sold tribes into slavery in an attempt to compensate for a poor harvest and lack of food supply. However, he was met with staunch resistance by the Gallic, Britonic, and Germanic tribes as they rallied against invasion from the Romans. 

Moreover, it may be the Belgic tribe that enacted the most effective opposition - their leader, Ambiorix, revolted against the Romans in 54-53 BC along with his tribe, the Eburones. This opposition resulted in the death of fifteen Roman cohorts, leading Caesar to intervene and swear that he would enact his revenge. Thus, tribes were slaughtered, their land was destroyed, and the Eburones tribe and all of their comrades were eventually nearly completely exterminated. 

Caesar documented the Gallic Wars in his book Commentarii de Bello Gallico and claimed that over a million Gauls were slain over the course of the conflict. However biased his reporting of this number might be, there were still a high number of Gauls killed in battle, as well as civilians. This high death toll goes some way towards explaining the vast amount of chariot graves across Europe, as many notable warriors were slain in defense of the tribes. 

Conclusion

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Scandinavian literature is rife with tales of heroic warrior women fighting for the honour of their land and families. Yet, most people’s preconception of the Vikings typically still only involves hoards of rampaging, wild men; what most of us don’t consider is the role that women played in the relatively sophisticated culture. 

Whether or not Scandinavian women were permitted the same stature in combat as men has been heavily debated throughout the years. However, the discovery of one particular combatant’s grave lends support to the concept of Viking Shield-Maidens, who likely stood shoulder to shoulder with their male counterparts. Perhaps folklore is more close to fact instead of fiction in this circumstance. 

What was found at Birka?

In the 8th and 9th centuries, the town of Birka, Sweden, was considered to be the most prosperous city in Sweden and had a population of approximately 4000 people. This meant that the settlement was home to a wide range of craftsmen and traders, ranging from bronze casters and comb-makers, to travellers from far away countries. However, even though people travelled from distant lands to settle in Birka,  the majority of the colonisers in the town were Vikings. Therefore, it is unsurprising to learn that Birka was to become the focus of vested archaeological interest many centuries later. 

In the 1870s, during an archaeological dig led by Hojalmar Stolpe on a Viking site in Birka, a burial chamber was unearthed which went on to become known as one of the most iconic finds from the Viking era. Shielded by a large boulder and located on an elevated terrace, the gravesite was a treasure trove of significant Viking finds. 

In fact, it was clear that whoever was buried at Birka was not given an ordinary burial; they were kitted out for the afterlife with a range of weapons and goods.

The grave contained an axe, a sword, a spear, arrows, shields, knives, and even horses. Although horses were found in many graves in Birka, this was the only one that contained two - one of which was a mare.

Furthermore, the body was arranged astride a saddle and dressed in expensive silk robes which were threaded with silver. Based on these findings, it was presumed for approximately 128 years that the grave was that of a well-respected and battle-familiar man.  

However, it was noted that the human remains found in the grave didn’t seem overly masculine. Yet, the size and shapes of bones can vary according to a population, so further analysis was required to confirm suspicions that the body was that of a woman.

The High Ranking Birka Shield-maiden

An osteological inspection of the skeleton in the 1970s confirmed scientists’ speculations that the grave was that of a female who died at around 30 years of age. Furthermore, an analysis of the body’s isotopes determined that the individual shares similar markers to people from areas that are considered to have a strong Viking history. Thus, scientists were resolute that the gravesite at Birka contained the first known high-ranking female Viking combatant - a Shield-Maiden. 

Interestingly, continued excavation of the contents of the grave found a strategic game similar to chess. Archaeologists believe that the presence of this game demonstrates the Shield-Maiden’s battle prowess - she may have been skilled at strategising battle moves and leading her troops into combat. Furthermore, it was noted that very few warriors were buried with this type of game, so the Shield-Maiden may have been a highly regarded member of the military. 

Regardless of the strong evidence found in the grave at Birka, many scholars still debate that the grave belonged to a female warrior. One such argument against this school of thought poses the possibility that because the tomb was excavated so long ago, that bones from other graves may have ended up getting mixed in with the Shield-Maiden’s remains, or at the very least mislabelled over the past century.

However, seeing as Hojalmar Stolpe was notoriously diligent regarding his processes, it seems unlikely that this would be the case. Even so, it is also debated that the presence of the chess-like game as evidence of being a warrior is largely conjecture. It is possible that there may be a cultural bias regarding the reluctance to accept that the grave belonged to a female, as many Viking scholars are unwilling to credit the possibility that there may have been high-ranking female warriors. 

Despite these arguments to the contrary, it is still widely accepted that the grave at Birka belonged to a female warrior. This fact opens the door to many possible questions for how the Vikings functioned as a society and the role that females played within it. Inspirationally, instead of merely being fierce in mythology, it is entirely possible that the role of female Vikings was as indomitable in real life as the legends suggest. 

Although not much remains of Birka, you can still connect with your Viking heritage - if you want to know whether you have a DNA link with the Birka Shield-Maiden, then you can find out with My True Ancestry’s advanced technology.

Although the 11th and 12th centuries are renowned for having the most significant cultural impact in history, no medieval empire made as much of a societal impression as did the cultural renaissance of the Carolingians.

What was considered to be a relatively bleak time in history was brightened by this dynasty’s attempts to revive traditions and cultural heritage. Yet, was the Carolingian Empire’s influence as impactful as it is given credit for?

What was the Carolingian Empire?

The Carolingian Empire were descendants of the Franks - a Germanic-speaking tribe that invaded the Roman Empire and established the most powerful Christian kingdom of the middle ages.

There could be no more robust evidence of the Carolingian’s influence than the sheer magnitude of their kingdom. At the time of its genesis (800 A.D.), the Carolingian Empire covered approximately 429,000 square miles and had a population ranging between 10 and 20 million people.

The land between the Loire and the Rhine was known as Francia - the Kingdom of the Franks - and was at the core of the Empire. To the south, the Carolingian’s territories crossed beyond the Pyrenees and into the Emirate of Cordoba. To the North it extended into the Kingdom of the Danes, to the west it connected with Brittany, and to the east, Francia shared a border with the Slavs and Avars. 

Upon the dynasty’s division in the year 843, the earliest stages of the modern kingdoms of France and Germany were created and the groundwork was set for the influential monarchies of continental Europe and the Holy Roman Empire. Whereas many European countries still bear the stamp of the Frank’s influence, such as Germany and Belgium, France is potentially the one that was most impacted, as even the country’s name was eponymous of the Carolingian dynasty’s territories. 

Charlemagne and the Carolingians

The Carolingian dynasty originated from a family of aristocratic Franks of the name “Charles” - derived from Charles Martel, the Frankish statesman and leader who ruled France until his death and consistently defended his country against Muslim invasions.

Martel’s grandson - Charlemagne - became the first emperor of the Carolingian dynasty upon his coronation by Pope Leo III, thus marking the empire’s beginning in the year 800. This inception established the completion of the Merovingian Dynasty. Due to the family’s fondness for the name Charles, and Charlemagne’s importance in their timeline, their dynasty became known by historians as the Carolingian Dynasty. 

Charlemagne intended to convert all of his territories to Christianity and spread its word along with his expanding empire. The reason for his religious agenda was likely due to Charlemagne’s belief that he was responsible for the salvation of his subjects which he outlined in his 789 legislation, the Admonitio Generalis.

However, another potential reason for why he was so concerned with the redemption of his people may have been to do with the insurgency in eschatology - a section of theology that focused on mankind’s final days or the “end of the world.” Academics of this time believed that Charlemagne’s reign as emperor was the sign that the world was going to end. Thus, Charlemagne’s concerns were somewhat founded. 

Due to Charlemagne’s extension of Frankish territories into Gaul, Germany, and Italy, the Carolingian Empire became one of the most significant empires of the middle ages in Europe. What’s more, the Empire was influential on Europe’s religious structure as Charlemagne formed an alliance with the papacy and ultimately created a papal state in the heart of Italy - the precursor to the Holy Roman Empire. Charlemagne was even given the title of emperor of the Roman Empire, further establishing a sense of unity across western Europe. 

Unfortunately, upon the death of Charlemagne’s successor, the Carolingian empire was divided into three separate realms.

Lothar - descendent of Charlemagne - ruled the Italian provinces and Rome and thus assumed the title of emperor. However, whereas the emperor would have commanded over all the Carolingian territories in judicial matters and protected the church prior to the empire’s division, after the kingdom was split, Lothar had little control over what happened outside of his territories. 

The Carolingian territories were reunited by Charles the Fat in 884, but they were divided again upon his death in 888. The Eastern faction of the empire was ruled by an ‘illegitimate’ Carolingian until 911, whereas the Western faction restored the legitimate dynasty and governed until 987.

The Carolingian Legacy

In comparison to other significant medieval European dynasties, the Carolingian Empire had a relatively short lifespan. However, regardless of its brief existence, the Carolingians left a profound mark on the continent of Europe.

Historically, the era of the Carolingian Empire is widely considered to be the genesis of feudalism - essentially a method of structuring society around an exchange of goods and land for service. Nevertheless, the Carolingian’s role in feudalism is heavily debated by historians, as some credit the empire’s role as heightened in this movement due to Charlemagne’s influence and power; instead, feudalism may have transitioned from the Merovingian to the Carolingian eras without much notable change. 

The Carolingian dynasty’s impact is likely most strongly felt in France and Germany. In fact, the ownership of Charlemagne is often hotly debated between both regions. Paris honours the emperor with a huge bronze statue which was designed during times of tension between France and Germany and was placed strategically in front of Notre Dame Cathedral as a symbol of the fact that Charlemagne is rightfully French. But the argument continued to be debated, and shots were taken by Napoleon, as he declared that ‘I am Charlemagne’ and painted himself with his idol’s name beneath him. Yet, this did not stop German leaders from associating themselves with the Carolingian emperor - even Adolf Hitler named his French military unit the ‘Charlemagne Division.’

Further evidence of the Carolingians and Charlemagne’s influence comes from the fact that every year since 1950, in the city of Aachen, Germany (the Carolingian Empire’s symbolic capital), an award is given to any person considered to have made a significant beneficial impact on European unity - the Charlemagne Prize. Notable recipients of this award include Winston Churchill, Pope Francis, and Emmanuel Macron. Apart from the honour of the award, the eponymous prize demonstrates how poignant Charlemagne’s legacy was on European culture. 

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There are very few ancient civilisations that had such an impact on Europe that so little is known about as the Pannonian Avars. Although they were ferocious in battle and had more of an influence than Attila the Hun, they are nowhere near as well known. The Avar’s legacy is still shadowed by time – so who were they really, and why is it that we understand so little about them?

Who were the Avars?

The Pannonian Avars were a nomadic civilisation from Eastern Asia/Siberia. They are not to be confused with the modern Avars native to the North Caucasus, as it is debatable whether or not they have DNA links with this group. After fleeing from the Gokturk Khaganate, the Pannonian Avars were named after the land in which they settled as they created an empire called the Avar Khaganate – an area that traversed the Pannonian Basin and large parts of Europe during the 6th-9th Century.

The reason why we know so little about the Avars is because they kept no written records, and thus documented very little of their history – with the exception of a few untranscribed runic texts.

Fortunately, the Avars kept richly decorated graves which provided insights into their way of life, such as the presence of gold and silver for passage into the afterlife, as well as stirrups which confirmed that they were one of the first civilisations who regularly used horses as a method of transportation – hence their depiction in contemporary art as mounted archers riding backwards on horseback. The graves were even telling of the Avar’s physical appearance as the presence of braid clasps in the tombs indicated that they wore their hair in plaits.

The Pannonian Avar wars

One of the things that we do know about the Pannonian Avars comes from Byzantine and Frankish sources, as they were prolific warriors that raided the Byzantine Empire and seized many major Roman cities. Apparently, the Avars depended on their speed and ability to surprise when launching attacks against their opponents. They also relied on their subject’s knowledge, especially those with military knowledge and prowess.

The Avar-Byzantine wars initiated in the year 568, shortly after the Avars first settled in the Pannonian Basin and claimed the land of the Gepids and Lombards for themselves. They initially failed to take Sirmium, but the city eventually fell in approximately 581, after which the Avars began to attack the Balkans.

The Avar attack on the Balkans was aided by the Byzantine-Sasanian war, as many of the Byzantine troops were left unaided and underpaid. In 583, the Avars successfully raided the cities Augustae, Singidunum, and Viminacium. At around this time, they also took a number of other major cities by force. However, the further inland that the Avars moved, the more at a disadvantage they became as they lost the element of surprise and their ability to attack with speed. Despite this, they still successfully rampaged a range of Moesi cities, continuing their raids with little resistance until the year 591.

After a failed attempt to invade Dalmatia, the Avars realigned their focus and settled their attention on the Franks, who they presumed would be easier to thwart. For this reason, the Balkans was left relatively untouched by war for a few years. This allowed the Avars to resume their modus operandi and take Byzantium by surprise.

The Byzantines made plans to invade the Avars’ land and were able to defeat them in the battles of Viminacium – the Avars’ first defeat on their own land. However, this was the beginning of many Avar defeats, initiating the collapse of their empire.

A few short years later, a number of Avar tribes began to defect to the Byzantines. This forced the Avars to switch their focus to Italy. Although they initiated their contact with the Italians in a peaceful and diplomatic manner, it did not take long for them to switch their tactics and attempt to take them by force. Thus, the Avars eventually felt brave enough to attack the Byzantines again in 615, after Byzantine troops left the Balkans unsupervised while defending against Persian advances.

In 614, it became apparent to the Avars that the Byzantines weren’t going to retaliate against them after the Persians captured Jerusalem. Despite a plead for peace from the Byzantine emperor Heraclius, the Avars refused to back off and instead, they plundered a range of Byzantine cities, continuing their fierce pillaging until the Siege of Constantinople.

In the year 626, the Avars and Persians attempted an assault on the walls of Constantinople, but the Byzantines had approximately 12,000 skilled troops who refused to let the city fall to the Avars. This determination, married with the fact that Persian rafts carrying troops to aid the Avars were intercepted by the Persians, meant that the Avars were forced to retreat and never attempt to seriously attack Constantinople again. Thus, a stop was finally put to the Avars’ persistent military prowess.

After their failed attempt to take Constantinople, the Avars’ decline was rapid. Due to ceaseless conflicts with other civilisations, as well as internal battles for power, the Avars never fully recovered and they continued to lose their land, leaving behind only remnants of a once-powerful empire. 

If you would like to know whether you have a DNA link with the powerful Avars, then you can find out with My True Ancestry.

Lola was a young Danish girl with bright blue eyes, dark skin, and inky hair. She lived in a small fishing village, and her last meal consisted of duck and hazelnuts, but because she was lactose intolerant, there was no trace of dairy. These facts could be considered standard details about many people, but, interestingly, Lola died approximately 5,700 years ago. So how do we know such specific information about her? 

Astonishingly, these details are available to us because of a discarded piece of ancient chewing gum made from the bark of a birch tree. Lola may have chewed it to create glue for fixing a tool or perhaps purely for enjoyment. Regardless, when she was done with the tar, she tossed it aside, and it became lost under layers of earth for thousands of years until archaeologists uprooted it. To their delight, the gum held the genome, oral microbes, and even dietary facts about its chewer.

What was discovered at Syltholm? 

Syltholm has revolutionized our concept of ancient humans due to finally providing a suitable sample for the analysis of ancient genomics. A stone-age sample of chewing gum, composed of birch tar and some other natural substances was found there - astoundingly well preserved and complete with clear dental indentations - after being hidden for thousands of years. 

Heating birch bark was regular practice in prehistory Scandinavia to create a glue-like substance for forging tools, in particular, setting handles onto stone items. The substance was also commonly used as chewing gum, and similar to modern chewing gums, it had the capacity to survive for thousands of years in the right conditions. 

Scientists have often pondered why these ancient populations so frequently chewed the birch bark. One possible reason was to soften it and make it malleable enough to use as glue; another reason was that the bark had mild antiseptic qualities so it may have been used to ease toothaches, or it might also have been used as a prehistoric toothbrush to clean teeth. Or perhaps the birch tar was chewed simply because it was enjoyable.

Whatever the reason for chewing it, scientists are grateful; the Syltholm sample has provided an insightful window into an ancient lifestyle and demonstrated the birch barks incredible ability to preserve DNA. 

What the Syltholm sample tells us about Lola

Fortunately, the archaeologists who discovered the gum in Syltholme recognized its significance, as otherwise this valuable artifact might have been regarded as useless ancient discard. Although the lump of tar looks innocuous and unremarkable, what it facilitates is astounding. In the case of Lola, it was the first time that a complete prehistory genome was extracted from anything other than bones and teeth. Therefore, the 2cm long lump of chewing gum enabled scientists to conjure up a well-rounded and accurate image of her. 

Although no human remains were found at the dig site at Syltholm where Lola lived, the chewing gum permitted archaeologists to determine what she looked like, as well as what her diet consisted of, and any viral or bacterial strains that she may have supported.

The era’s poor hygiene helped to provide extra information about Lola; her gum revealed evidence of hazelnut and mallard DNA, suggesting that she likely came from a community of hunter-gatherers. Furthermore, her extracted genome indicates that she is genetically more European in origin - specifically Belgium and Spain - than the farming populations from Scandinavia. 

Lola’s chewing gum sample also provides us with precious information about her microbiome - a group of mostly harmless bacteria that occupy the human body. Even though a rich body of information about Lola’s microbial status was gathered from the gum, it was impossible to determine her state of health. However, it was clear that she carried the Epstein-Barr virus (which more than ninety percent of modern humans carry) and several pneumonia-associated pathogens. 

The host of information that a sample of birch gum carries may depend on the environment in which it was buried. In the case of Lola’s piece, the reason why the gum carried so much information may be because it was stored in a relatively low oxygen environment; Syltholm was almost entirely sealed in mud, which ensured the preservation of the otherwise fragile organic material.

Conclusion

Seeing as it is often difficult to extract information from large periods of time due to a lack of tangible human remains, Syltholm opens many opportunities to derive rich and personal details about people from ancient eras - especially considering that the gum contains microbial DNA from the mouth. For this reason, the birch tar gum could be an even more invaluable source of information about long-lost communities than bones. 

If you would like to find out more about how your DNA could be linked to ancient populations such as Lola’s, then you can find out through My True Ancestry.

Since their first attack on English land in 729AD, the Vikings mercilessly and relentlessly raided the British countryside, causing the locals to label them as ferocious combatants who were worthy of fear.

Many thought the Vikings to be a form of godly wrath, sent to penalise Christians for deviating from their devout ways. However, it soon became clear that these invaders were plundering purely for assets, as they stripped cities of their riches and claimed the land for their own.

Thus, pushed to breaking point on November 13, 1002 AD, King Æthelred Unræd - fearing that the Vikings were about to claim the southern territories - ordered all Danish men who had settled in England to be slain. These commands led to what is now known as the St. Brice’s Day Massacre in honour of the religious feast day on which the slaughtering took place. 

The build-up to the massacre

The St. Brice’s Day Massacre is perhaps one of the more major British events about which so little is known. Although it is typically considered a poorly thought out act of panic that led to vengeful slaughter, the extent to which the King’s orders were carried out remains in question. Clearly, the orders were enacted to a certain extent, yet to fully understand the reasoning behind such a vindictive decree, we must first consider the history behind it. 

There is still a great deal of debate between Historians regarding the alliance between the Danes and the Anglo-Saxons. Although popular imagery of the Vikings typically includes horned-helmeted warriors and ferocious invaders in longboats, they were also farmers and traders from Scandinavia and Denmark who settled on English land with their families. Living shoulder-to-shoulder with the Anglo-Saxons, the Vikings not only bartered peacefully with them but eventually even intermarried with them. Yet, despite this familiarity, there was bound to be some deep-rooted resentment on behalf of the natives against the Danish invaders. 

The Vikings that invaded England quickly established a Danelaw in the areas in which they settled, which consisted of predominantly Danish colonisers who controlled the northern territories of England. By doing so, these Danish Vikings destroyed what was then a heptarchy of seven different regions controlled by different rulers. Although these settlers didn’t forcefully impose any change of religion on the area’s people, they did inflict their cultural laws and traditions. 

In the period between the mid to late 900s, there was a peaceful period where the Vikings withdrew from English land after the death of Eric Bloodaxe - the Viking King of Northumbria. Yet, this phase did not last for long, as the Vikings returned with a renewed vigour for violence towards the port towns of England.

King Æthelred soon became desperate as the Vikings required Danegeld (Viking money) as a bribe not to attack the southern territories, but it had become scarce, and the pressure to keep them from invading was building - Vikings had settled in Northern France and were lending support to their troops as they rested up between English invasions. 

Despite attempts at a harmonious resolution to the conflict - such as organising a political union between a noblewoman and a Viking - King Æthelred’s methods did not achieve the outcome that he hoped for. Instead, under the threat of even more invasions from the Vikings, and possibly even on his life, Æthelred responded by ordering the death of all Danish men on English soil on an upcoming holy day.

However, despite understanding the circumstances that led to the massacre, the event itself is still shrouded in misinformation. Some historians believe that the killings were limited only to recent migrants and members of the Danish nobility outside of the Danelaw, but others believe it to be inclusive of all Danish men. Thus, how many people actually died on St. Brice’s Day remains a mystery.

What’s more, archaeological attempts did very little to reveal more about the events that transpired on this fateful day. That is, until the recent discovery of two mass graves almost one thousand years after the event itself. 

What was found in the mass graves?

In 2008, while digging on one of Oxford’s most prestigious colleges - St. John’s - archaeologists unearthed a mass grave that turned out to be one of Britain’s largest Neolithic henges.

It had a large ditch which was seemingly used as a medieval dump for waste such as rubbish, food, and broken pieces of pottery. Amongst this detritus, the archaeological team uncovered the bodies of thirty-seven people. The majority of these remains appear to have been male between the ages of sixteen and twenty-five and were deemed too large and strong to have been typical of people of Anglo-Saxon heritage for that period. What’s more, whoever these remains belonged to, they clearly died a considerably violent death; some had cracked or fractured skulls, others were stabbed, and some were semi or fully decapitated. The remains also bore evidence of having been burned prior to being buried in the ditch.  

From an analysis of the bones, it was determined that these men didn’t die in a manner typical of the medieval ages. Instead of dying in hand to hand combat, the men were more than likely attacked by multiple people in a surprise strike. This is because the remains showed evidence of having been assaulted by multiple aggressors at once, and also in the back as the victims attempted to flee.

Furthermore, radiocarbon dating of the bodies placed them to be from the Anglo-Saxon era, and thus, the period of King Æthelred, and a chemical analysis of the collagen found in the bones and tooth enamel of the remains determined that the victims had a diet that was high in seafood - uncommon for locals during this period. Therefore, this information is further evidence that these bodies belonged to people that weren’t native to England. As a result, the archaeologists are understandably convinced that they found the remains of victims of the St. Brice’s Day Massacre.

Further support for the theory that these remains found in Oxford belong to the St.Brice’s Day Massacre victims came with the discovery of a second mass grave in Weymouth, Southern England. The parallels between this burial site and the one in Oxford were astounding; the grave contained the remains of fifty-four men, all of whom had met a violent end similar to the men found in Oxford. What’s more, these men were seemingly attacked in a surprise ambush rather than having been killed in combat. 

The burial sites unearthed at Oxford and Weymouth are evidence of a vengeful attack against foreign settlers, and whereas this discovery has provided valuable insight into the mystery surrounding the St. Brice’s Day Massacre, the evidence does remain somewhat circumstantial. Although there are undoubtedly more mass graves of this nature that could potentially provide more answers, for now, what happened on the feast day of St. Brice in 1002 AD remains an enigma. Nevertheless, what is known, is that the slaughtering likely did very little for the political prowess of King Æthelred-the-ill-advised.

Conclusion

Regardless of the nature of the relationship between the Vikings and the Anglo-Saxons, the Danish invaders undoubtedly had a significant cultural influence on the English language, countryside, and heritage that persists today.

If you would like to know whether you have a DNA connection to the Vikings of the St.Brice’s Day Massacre, then My True Ancestry can help you uncover your Danish roots! 

The Viking explorer, Erik rauði Þorvaldsson, was primarily known as Erik the Red due to his fiery red hair and beard. Yet legends abound that his nickname was derived from the explosive temper that got him banished from Norway and Iceland, forcing him to traverse unchartered lands. It was this exploration that led to him founding the first European settlement on Greenland. 

Much of what we know about Erik the Red comes from the “Saga of Erik the Red” and the “Saga of the Greenlanders,” which are thought to have been written in the 13th Century. From both of these accounts, Erik the Red’s influence continued westwards beyond Greenland - even if he didn’t bring it there himself. 

Who was Erik the Red?

Born in Norway in approximately 950 AD, Erik the Red - also known as Erik Rauð, Eiríkur Rauði, and Erik Thorvaldsson - originally left his native country for Iceland at the tender age of ten because his father was exiled for committing manslaughter.

Although typical banishments in Norway at that time were limited to approximately three years, there is no evidence to suggest that either Erik or his father returned to settle in Norway. Thus, it was in Iceland that Erik married his wife, Tjodhilde. However, the apple seemingly didn’t fall far from the tree and following in his father’s footsteps, Erik was similarly ostracised from Iceland for murder. Thus, he was forced to explore the land to the west of the country. 

Although many believe that Erik the Red discovered Greenland, this is not, in fact, the case. Another Norwegian found the uncharted land approximately one hundred years before Erik landed there. However, although he may not have been the first to come across Greenland, he is certainly the first to colonize it successfully.

The founding of Greenland 

Accompanied by a small group of followers, Erik the Red departed from the most westerly point of Iceland in approximately 982 AD. The group landed on an island at the southern tip of an icy new land and ventured north from there.

To Erik’s delight, this new country had an abundance of resources as well as a striking landscape and fertile valleys. Erik and his group explored the novel terrain for two years, naming places according to their whims. In a similar vein, Erik the Red called the country Greenland in the hopes that such an attractive name would draw settlers.

Soon after his settlement in Iceland, Erik the Red decided to return to Iceland in 985 with the intention of coaxing people into following him back to Greenland. He evidently possessed the skill of persuasion, as approximately 500 people decided to set sail with the purpose of settling in the new country. However, although Erik’s mission was relatively successful, many of the boats containing new settlers never reached the eastern settlement. 

Despite the low numbers, Erik the Red took the position of Chieftain in southern Greenland and created an estate known as Brattahlið - a place now known as Qassiarsuk - at the inner point of Eriksfjord. Brattahlið means “steep slope” and is located approximately 60 miles north of the ocean, in a fjord sheltered from the harsh ocean climate. 

However, despite the new colony’s low numbers, some of its settlers decided to venture further north. These two colonies became known as the east and west settlements. Unfortunately, the new communities never flourished, and their numbers didn’t rise above a couple of thousand. 

Eventually, the colonies died out in the mid 15th century. The exact reason for the population decline is relatively unknown, but it was likely due to cooling temperatures, soil erosion, and a political climate in which trade became increasingly difficult. Yet, despite the fall of his colony,  Erik the Red’s legacy didn’t die with him. 

Erik the Red’s son - Leif Erikson  

In approximately 1000 AD, Leif the Fortunate - son of Erik the Red - having been converted to Christianity by the King of Norway, left Norway and brought the first Christian missionaries with him to Greenland.

Promptly after his return to Greenland, Leif ordered the establishment of the first Christian church on the continent of North America in Brattahlið; Tjodhilde’s Church - named for his mother and Erik the Red’s wife. The reason why Tjodhilde was the church’s namesake was likely because she had become a Christian despite Erik’s devout Paganism. Thus, the church was built on separate grounds from their farmland. 

According to the “Saga of the Greenlanders,” contained in the “The Book of the Flat Islands,” Leif the Fortunate decided to venture west in search of new lands shortly after 1000 AD. Apparently, this adventure was based on stories that he had heard from an Icelander - Bjarni Herjólfsson - who had been diverted to this new country by a ferocious storm many years previously. However, according to the “Saga of Erik the Red,” Leif discovered North Coastal America - or Vinyard - when he, himself, was diverted from Greenland by a storm. Nevertheless, upon discovering coastal North America, Leif the Fortunate named the areas after their physical qualities. 

Conclusion

Due to its sheltered location, Brattahlíð still has some of the more premium farmland that Greenland has to offer.

Many of its buildings - such as a farmhouse with an insulating turf bank and flagstone floor - were still standing in 1953. However, more recently they are just indentations in the earth. What modern-day visitors to Brattahlíð - Qassiarsuk - can expect though, is simplicity and arctic beauty, with a replica of Tjodhilde’s Church, a small store, and a youth hostel for those wishing to explore the terrain. 

If you would like to know whether you have a Viking DNA connection to Erik the Red or his son, Leif the fortunate, then My True Ancestry can help - Take your free ancient DNA analysis!

There’s no shortage of myths about the Vikings and what they looked like. If most of us were to close our eyes and picture them we would see fearsome men with flaxen hair, wearing horned helmets and furs to protect them on their plundering seaward journeys.

But apparently, our mental representations of these warriors could be inaccurate. Historians and archaeologists have been speculating for many years that the Vikings had an incredibly diverse genetic background, and recently, after the largest-ever DNA sequencing of Viking skeletons...well, it looks like they finally have the evidence to back them up.  

Vikings weren’t a homogenous group of people

Based on what we learned about Vikings from schoolbooks and television, we would have assumed them to be a homogenous group of people; similar looks, build, and thus, presumably, genetics, but findings from research conducted over the course of many years (recently published in Nature) essentially debunks the modern image of Vikings.

After tracing the routes that the Vikings took across Europe, as well as examining how people from other countries decided to take up the Viking ways, the research team, led by geneticist Eske Willersley, discovered some fascinating findings.

Instead of being purely blonde Scandinavians as was previously thought, the Vikings may have carried genes from Southern Europe and Asia – individuals with high levels of non-Scandinavian ancestry, meaning that they were likely to have had dark hair rather than light.

What’s more, Viking populations were likely to be considerably more isolated from each other than what was previously thought.

This created a larger spread than what would have been possible if they were more concentrated – for example, Vikings from Sweden would have travelled to the Baltic regions such as Poland, Russia, and Ukraine, Norwegian Vikings would likely have travelled to Ireland, Iceland and Greenland, and Vikings from what is now known as Denmark would have travelled to England. This would have created communities with high genetic diversity instead of the myth of uniformity that we are familiar with.

Surprisingly, the findings suggested that there was actually little evidence that Scandinavian populations were genetically diverse. In fact, aside from some coastal communities, other Scandinavian populations remained mostly homogeneous for centuries.

Another interesting finding from the research was the discovery of Viking-style graves in Orkney, Scotland which contained no Scandinavian DNA, as well as the fact that some of the Viking graves in Scandinavia contained Irish, Scottish, and Saami DNA.

Also, sequencing of remains uncovered in Greenland showed a mix of Scandinavian men from Norway and women from Britain – but the artefacts that they were buried with appear to be entirely Scandinavian. Although this information raises some questions, it also provides us with some answers – it suggests that being a Viking might have been an occupation rather than a genetic right.

The findings of this ground-breaking study, which examined the DNA of people who lived between the years of 750 AD to 1050 AD, provides us with the powerful realisation that being a Viking likely had more of social identity than a genetic influence.

This could potentially have implications for anyone wishing to discover more about their heritage – to find out whether you have a bit of Viking in your history, like the Viking Birka Shield-maiden, start your journey today with My True Ancestry.
 

Find out your Scandinavian ethnicity estimate today with an AncestryDNA test.

In 1942, high in the snowy caps of the Himalayas and five days from civilization, a forest ranger took a routine stroll on the shores of lake Roopkund.

The lake is located on one of the Himalayas’ highest peaks, so it was relatively unchartered ground. Still, the ranger didn’t expect to stumble across one of India’s most mysterious and startling discoveries; hundreds of bones and skulls - some with preserved flesh still clinging to them - scattered in the glacial hollow. 

Resting for centuries in a storm-battered altitude of snowfields and unforgiving peaks, the riddle of who these skeletons belonged to has plagued scientists for years. Who were these people? Why were they in the mountains? And how did they die?

The findings at Skeleton Lake

Roopkund - Skeleton Lake - is a shallow glacial lake, with a depth of approximately two meters. It is frozen solid during the winter months, so it is only during the summer that Skeleton Lake fully reveals its macabre secret; the remains of more than three hundred people.

DNA analysis revealed that the bones belonged to both males and females of a wide age range. Due to the extreme temperatures on Trisul, the skeletons are remarkably well maintained. Some even have preserved soft tissue, hair, and nails, as well as accessories such as slippers, spearheads, wooden artifacts, and the remnants of musical instruments

Interestingly, not many weapons or trade goods could be located at Skeleton Lake, indicating that it was not on an ancient trade route. This lack of utilitarian artifacts only led to more questions around who these people were and why they were traveling this route to begin with. 

Who do the skeletons belong to?

Local - as well as international - scientists have been understandably fascinated by the mystery of who these bones belonged to. Some theorized that the lake was a sacred spot where religious men committed suicide to their gods, while others debated that it was the burial grounds for unfortunate traders who lost their way. Many locals believed that it was a celebratory pilgrimage gone awry, and yet others presumed that it was a pragmatic spot to bury the victims of an illness to avoid contagion. 

These theories led to a range of assumptions regarding who the skeletons belonged to in the more than half-century since they were discovered.

Initially, British officials residing in India believed that the skeletons belonged to Japanese soldiers that died while attempting a secret invasion. Another similar theory suggested that the bodies were those of Indian soldiers who died while attempting to invade Tibet in 1841. However, both of these concepts were quickly ruled out due to the age of the skeletons, as radiocarbon dating placed them to be from approximately 850 CE. 

However, a more recent analysis of the remains found them to be from strikingly different eras (potentially as much as one thousand years apart) and from different genetic groups; Mediterranean, south-Asian, and south-east Asian. 

In fact, one larger group of skeletons appears to be of South Asian ancestry dating to approximately 800 AD. The other skeletons found, dating from around 1800 AD, seem to be of Greek or Cretan origin. Unfortunately, it's still unknown how these migrants from the Mediterranean died in this remote location.

How did these people die?

The locals surrounding the area of Roopkund have their own beliefs and legends concerning how those buried underneath the lake died. According to their theories, the King of Kannauj - Raja Jasdhaval - and his pregnant wife were taking a pilgrimage to the goddess Nanda Devi’s shrine to honor the birth of their child. There was a festive atmosphere to their group; musicians, dancers, servants, and other people of high stature joined them to celebrate the impending birth. While they journeyed, they sang, danced, and feasted. 

Yet the pilgrimage was considered to be a religious and respected one, and the group were technically not honoring its sanctity.

In response to their disrespect, Latu - the adopted brother of Nanda Devi - furiously sent a hailstorm to the group. The celebrants were assaulted with chunks of ice as large as cricket balls that killed whoever they struck. Some scientists believe that the skeletons might actually be the result of such a pilgrimage, which would account for the number of people traveling in such a precarious area, as well as the musical instruments, and the victim’s variation in age. However, further research revealed that pilgrimages in this area didn’t start happening until the late 19th Century - therefore, the remains are potentially too old. 

The popular local Cemetary Theory assumed that the dead were victims of an illness and, thus, were buried high in the mountains. However, genetic studies of the remains couldn’t find any evidence to support the presence of illness or disease. The Cemetary Theory is still recounted in popular folk songs, where locals also sing about how Nanda Devi conjured a hail storm “as hard as iron.”  

Startlingly, studies of the remains conducted in the 1950s determined that many of the skeletons displayed head injuries, apparently caused by objects from above. This lead the researchers to determine that the common cause of death was a heavy and sudden hailstorm, from which the victims were unable to find shelter. This finding backs up the legends which focus on hailstorms being the main cause of death, although perhaps not the myths around them.

As is clear from these accounts, as well as the genetic diversity of the remains and the time difference between their deaths, there is no one clear cause of death for the people buried at Roopkund lake. Although how these people died still remains a mystery, it is confidently believed that it cannot be attributable to one specific cause.  

Conclusion

Roopkund is held in considerably high regard by locals; every twelve years, the Nanda Devi Raj Jat festival is held there to honor the Goddess Nanda. Unfortunately, due to the heavy tourist interest in the area, there is growing concern about the diminishing number of skeletons as people have been found taking bones with them as macabre souvenirs after they visit. The worrying fact here is that if steps are not taken to preserve this fascinating historical site, then the mystery of Skeleton Lake will be lost in time. 

Would you like to know if you could have a DNA connection to one of the populations found at Skeleton Lake? Take our free DNA analysis to find out!

The concept of “Gladiator” typically conjures up images of ancient Rome and the Colosseum, where the sun would beat down on the ferocious combatants as they entertained their audience with violent confrontations.

What it doesn’t immediately bring to mind is the city of York, over two thousand miles away in Northern England. Yet, genome technology used to cast light on a mysterious excavation conducted more than a decade ago has put York on the map as the Roman capital of the North of Britain. 

Roman York

York’s history truly began with the arrival of the Romans in approximately 71 AD - no evidence of a permanent settlement has been found to exist there prior to this time.

The Romans founded York - then known as Eboracum - after seemingly migrating from the south of England due to a love triangle between royals. Cartimandua - the queen of a Celtic tribal group known as Brigantes - rather enjoyed collaborating with the invading Romans. However, her estranged husband Venutious unequivocally did not. 

According to legend, once the royal pairing separated, Venutious went to war against his former wife and her Roman colleagues, fortifying the cities where they previously resided. The situation was worsened by Cartimandua finding a new lover in the king’s previous armour bearer. After the queen’s brief capture and subsequent rescue, the Romans decided that establishing some distance from the Celtic tribe was probably for the best and set their sights on more Northernly pastures. And if any English city was suitable for the Roman’s fort-building prowess, it was York. 

Eboracum wasn’t much to look at initially, but it was the perfect location for defending and launching attacks against the Brigantes, and the natives provided little resistance. The countryside in its current state was also easily accessed by land and sea, as it was the area where the River Foss meets the River Ouse. In time, through the establishment of forts and the development of the city, Eboracum became the capital of Northern England. 

What was unearthed in York?

In 2004, on a site called Driffield Terrace which was destined for a housing development and lay just to the south of the medieval walls of York city, a routine excavation began to clear the site for building work. Previous minor excavations of the area - as well as some chance encounters - unveiled artifacts that hinted at a richer wealth of findings. Yet, what the archaeologists found was highly unexpected. 

Driffield Terrance turned out to be the burial ground for eighty skeletons - sixty of which were in a complete state. The remains were dated and found to be from between the early 2nd to late 4th century - therefore, the period of Roman occupation. Furthermore, features found in the area, including a pit, a ditch, and inhuman and cremation burial sites, were also of Roman date - as were the pieces of pottery found in the area.

The burial site did not appear to be a mass grave, as the bodies were buried at different times. Most of them were ruled to be male (seventy-five) and under the age of forty-five. This was considered to be unusual for a cemetery of this type. As was the fact that the men buried there were clearly well developed, strong, and tall for people of this time period. Whats more, the bones showed evidence of many healed, and unhealed wounds - whoever was buried at Driffield Terrace had clearly experienced lives of violence.

However, as fascinating as the discovery of the skeletons was, the most interesting element of the find was the condition of the remains. All eighty bodies were obviously celebrated in their death, as well as decapitated and arranged in a manner that wasn’t typical of Roman customs.

Who was buried at Driffield Terrace?

There were a number of intriguing factors about the cemetery at Driffield Terrace; the fact that most of the skeletons were male and under the age of forty-five, the discovery of many wounds and injuries over their lifetimes, and whoever was buried there were obviously given respectable burials. This led scientists to wonder whether the remains were those of celebrated soldiers, but at that time at that time, soldiers weren’t buried inside city walls. Thus, the idea that the remains were those of gladiators was born. 

Further examination of the skeletons was slow and arduous, but the results supported the theory of the existence of York gladiators; through DNA evidence, many of them were found to have been from the Roman Empire, and they showed indications of having been trained fighters. Also, it was not uncommon for defeated gladiators to be decapitated, making the argument that Driffield Terrace was a gladiator burial ground even more compelling. Furthermore, parallels were found between the way the remains in York were buried and those found in Ephesus, where a tombstone confirmed that those buried there were gladiators. 

Although the wounds on the skeletons are evidence of them being gladiators in life, it is how these injuries were clearly medically treated which is most convincing. Gladiators were expensive and valuable investments during this period; therefore, their owners would have placed a lot of attention and money into their physical upkeep. What’s more, some of the injuries supported the theory that a number of the bodies belonged to Bestiarii - a type of gladiator that predominantly fought against animals - specifically bite marks from an adult male lion. Which, much like the remains found in Driffield Terrace, was obviously not native to York. 

However, there are still some unexplained factors to consider - such as why the skeletons were arranged with their heads placed between their legs, who the female bodies belonged to, and the fact that some debate that gladiators were not routinely decapitated upon defeat. Although the theory of Driffield Terrace being a gladiator graveyard is by no means concrete, the evidence is still compelling. What’s more, if it is accurate, then the cemetery in York may be the best example of its kind in the world.

DNA Analysis

Detailed analysis of these gladiators from York revealed some fascinating results.

The bones showed various degrees of wear and tear as one might expect from the dangerous sport: 6DRIF-18 revealed a spinal fracture of the first vertibrae, 6DRIF-21, 6DRIF-3, and 3DRIF-16 meanwhile have fractured forearms, ankles and wrists.

6DRIF-22 has a skull injury as well as a stab to the neck - his extra vertebrae did not seem to assist with his fate. 6DRIF-23 meanwhile had four cuts to his jaw and was fully decapitated - clearly not the best fate to have.

Last but not least, 3DRIF-26 is fascinating indeed - he had a left shoulder injury, fractured ribs, damage wrists - and from a genetic standpoint is a deviation from the rest. His background compared to ancient samples from the time period matches very close to Ptolemaic Egyptians or the Near East.

Conclusion

The findings at Driffield Terrace helped to reveal just how Romanized Britain was during this era, and enriches our understanding of the role of the gladiators in Roman culture.

Have you already checked if your DNA is linked to the Roman Gladiators from York?

There are countless reasons for the Canary Islands’ over twelve million yearly visitors. Whether it is due to the archipelago’s crystal waters, volcanic landscape, or sub-tropical climate, travellers to the islands are guaranteed a unique and exciting experience.

However, what most of these visitors fail to recognise, is the Canary’s rich and diverse history and ancestry. Long before the islands were colonized by Spanish settlers in the 15th century, it was already occupied by another civilisation - the Guanches. 

Who were the Guanches?

Etymologically, the name Guanches can be accurately translated as “person of Tenerife.” Although the term was originally used to describe the ancient inhabitants of only Tenerife, it is now used to make reference to anyone from the prehispanic population of the Canary Islands in their entirety. 

For a civilization of this period, the Guanches were especially tall, ranging from five feet nine inches to six foot two. They also show evidence of being strong and agile, which helped them to navigate the difficult desert terrain, and demanding outdoor lifestyle.

Evidence found through archaeological studies indicates that the Guanches were predominantly tribal, and therefore had a ruler such as a king or a chieftain. They were also more than likely farmers and - because food could be sparse - they may often have had to act as hunter-gatherers and forage for fruit. The Guanches likely resided in simple homes and caves, and their wealth was determined by the number of cattle they owned. 

Not very much is known about the Guanches religious preferences, although it is thought that they believed in one higher power or God and in the existence of a form of a devil or demons.

However, who this God was varied from island to island: Acoran in Gran Canaria, Achaman in Tenerife, Abora in La Palma, and Eraoranhan in Hierro. The islanders used the pottery idol to represent their supreme beings and worshipped them in their caves, out in the open, and under sacred trees. Each of the islands had specific methods of honouring their God - for example, Lanzarote used milk as a form of sacrifice and they poured it on the peaks of their mountains. 

Risco Caido - a structure that consists of 21 caves that were used by the Guanches as religious temples and for astronomical observation - has recently been made into the Canary Islands’ first Unesco Heritage Site. The structure was decorated with sophisticated drawings and holes which illuminated that artwork when sun or moonlight filtered in, demonstrating how advanced the islanders were for such an ancient civilization. 

Furthermore, the Guanches have been associated with the similarly advanced ancient Egyptians due to their practice of preserving their dead through mummification. Once the intricate mummification process was completed, the individual was exposed to the harsh sunlight for two weeks, and during this period, their loved ones could mourne their lost family member. Once the procedure was done, the body was wrapped, individually marked and then taken to a burial cave. It is from these mummies that DNA could be extracted, and the genesis of the Guanches determined. 

Where did the Guanches originate from?

The origins of the Guanches has been the subject of considerable debate from both scientists and archaeologists. Many theories have abounded over the years, which contributed their ancestry to a variety of different sources, such as the Celts, the Vikings, and even the fabled Atlantis. This could potentially be due to the islands’ popularity throughout the ages as they were visited by civilisations such as the Numidians, Phoenicians, and Carthaginians.

What’s more, many ancient Roman artefacts were found on Lanzarote. However, as no evidence of any Roman settlements has ever been found, it is more likely that the inhabitants of the islands traded with the Romans. 

It is unclear how the original Guanches reached the Canaries in the first place, considering the islands’ remote and difficult-to-reach location. The most popular theory proposes that they used a number of small boats and landed on Lanzarote and Fuerteventura.

However, contrary to this belief, it is also thought that the Guanches were land lovers - thus, they did not sail. Therefore, it seems unlikely that they came to the Canaries of their own volition. Instead, it has been proposed that they might have been brought to the islands by sailors. This theory also accounts for why the tribes of aboriginal Guanches on the individual islands did not seem to have interacted with tribes from other islands - they were not comfortable navigating the sea between island to island.

Despite these diverse theories about how the original inhabitants of the Canary’s arrived on the islands, the most significant evidence of the Guanches’ heritage has come from a 2019 DNA study of ancient mummies discovered on the islands.

This study found evidence to suggest that the Guanches were descendent of the Berbers of North Africa. The Berbers (or as they refer to themselves, the Amazigh) are considered to be any descendants of the pre-Arab dwellers of North Africa, especially Morrocco and Algeria. Furthermore, they speak a variety of languages that evolved from the ancient Egyptians, which might somewhat explain the connection between the Guanches’ and Egyptians’ predilection for the mummification process. Also, Considering the Canary’s proximity to Morrocco and the fact that the Berbers may have landed on the islands in approximately 100AD, this theory is unsurprising. 

Unfortunately, due to repeated visitors to the island - as well as repeated attempts at invasion from Europeans - many Guanches died from exposure to diseases that they had no natural immunity to. Survivors of these instances were likely converted to Christianity and probably eventually even married Spanish invaders. For this reason, many modern-day Canary Islanders claim to be descendent of the Guanches.

Conclusion

The Guanches no longer exist as a civilisation, yet their influence on the modern-day Canary Islands is clear. From their interest in the artforms of dance and music to their strong familial bond and the unique whistling language employed in La Gomera - the Guanches’ influence is indisputable.

If you would like to know whether your DNA could be linked to the first known inhabitants of the Canary Islands, then you can find out with My True Ancestry

Known as the last King of France, for being married to Marie Antoinette, and for how he was executed during the French Revolution, King Louis XVI left a lasting legacy.

However, despite rich records of how he lived, the most fascinating element of his life might be the mystery created by a gruesome souvenir collected at the site of his death. 

Who was Louis XVI?

Born into royal lineage on August 23rd, 1754 in the palace of Versaille, Louis Auguste de France was the third son of Louis, Dauphin of France and the grandson of Louis XV. Louis XVI also came from royalty on his mothers side of the family, as she was the daughter of the King of Poland. At an early age, Louis was bestowed with junior status in the french court, and thus given the title Duc de Berry.

Louis was renowned for being a shy boy. This was possibly due to the relatively little attention that he received from his parents. Louis’ older brother - Louis duc de Bourgogne - was originally intended to be King, however, his death at the age of nine made Louis XVI the heir apparent. For this reason, he was given every possible privilege in life, such as tutorage from French noblemen in subjects such as Latin, history, and astronomy. He even reached fluency in Italian and english.

Unfortunately, Louis’ father and mother died from tuberculosis when he was young, thus, the essential groundwork was never properly set for him to become a successful ruler. In fact, his tutors often reinforced the idea that his shyness was a sign of restraint and gravity; therefore Louis never overcame his timidity and remained indecisive by nature. 

In 1770, Louis XVI married Marie Antoinette, a pairing orchestrated to consolidate an alliance between France and Austria. Thus, shortly after their marriage, Louis became king of France after his grandfathers, Louis XV’s, death. 

Louis XVI’s reign

Although Louis XVI was well educated and had a sensitivity towards his subject’s needs and an interest in how foreign policy should be implicated, he had neither the strength of character or the countenance in his opinions to argue the opinions of court factions or support any form of political reformation.

In 1774, Louis blocked any form of major societal change by reversing attempts to reduce the power of the parlements (France’s highest law courts and courts of appeal). Furthermore, Louis’ focus on foreign policy required him to borrow heavily and drove France to the brink of financial collapse. Thus, he focused on extreme monetary, economic, and administrative reforms. In combination with accusations of frivolity and extravagance against Marie Antoinette, the popular opinion of the monarchy became extremely sour. 

In an attempt to avoid the impending crisis, Louis XVI agreed to take measures to increase taxes. In response, the Third Estate (the commoners) declared that they alone had the right to represent France. However, rumours abounded that the King was planning to block their assembly.

This led to the famous storming of the Bastille, as to the commoners, the prison had become a symbol of the royal oppression of the lower classes. This day, 14th July, is now commemorated as a national holiday and the beginning of the French Revolution.

Shortly after the storming of the Bastille, Louis and his family were tracked down by an angry mob at their castle at Versaille and forced to return to Paris. Subsequent attempts to escape solidified the crowd's beliefs that Louis had been treasonous, therefore compelling him to accept the new constitution.

In the months and years that followed, the revolution became more radical and extreme in nature. Eventually, the monarchy was completely dissolved and France was made a republic. On the 21st January, 1793, after weeks of trial, Louis XVI was executed due to being found guilty of treason.

Louis XVI’s execution

On his execution day, Louis XVI - by then known as Louis Capet - was brought to a guillotine in a public square between the Champs-Elysees and the Tuileries. More than one hundred thousand gathered to witness the former king meet the fatal blade. After a brief, yet impassioned speech, the executioner tied Louis’ hands behind his back, cut his hair, and dropped the blade. 

One of the witnessing crowd - a Parisian named Maximilien Bourdaloue - rushed forwards along with many others and frantically dipped a handkerchief into the pooling blood. On returning home, Bourdaloue safely stored his treasured handkerchief inside a container shaped like a gourd which bears an inscription about how and where the gruesome souvenir was collected.

Despite the handkerchief not lasting the test of time, the container has been stained by Louis’ blood to this day. Dried blood was scraped from the gourd bottle and has been found to contain unusually high and rare markers for the Y-DNA haplogroup G2a (We do the same form of analysis at My True Ancestry!). 

However, despite the inscription and DNA analysis, there was no proof that the blood was actually that of Louis XVI. How could a DNA analysis conclusively prove that the blood belonged to the King unless there was something or someone to compare it to?

Henri IV’s severed head

One of Louis XVI’s most famous ancestors - Henri IV - was likely best known for signing the Edict of Nantes in 1598, but now, he is probably most famous for what happened to his head after his death. 

The Edict of Nantes was designed to orchestrate peace between French protestants and Catholics after many contentious years of battle. Yet it did little to protect Henry IV, as in 1610 he was assassinated by a catholic extremist and buried in the royal chapel at Saint-Denis.

However, during the French Revolution, there was a clear distaste for anyone of royal lineage - both alive and dead - and the remains of all royals buried at the chapel were unearthed from their tombs and tossed into a pit.

Due to a morbid fascination, one keepsake was salvaged from the chapel - Henri IV’s head. It had been passed down through generations by private collectors and was only positively identified in 2010. Radiocarbon dating placed it between the years 1450 and 1650.

Recent DNA analysis of the mummified head revealed that Henri also possessed the rare Y-DNA haplogroup G2a, and thus evidenced that Louis XVI was one of his descendents.

This analysis confirmed with ninety-five per cent confidence that the owner of the mummified head and the blood in the gourd were related. Thus supporting the belief that the gourd container held the blood of the executed former King of France.

However, skeptics argued that this DNA match could have occurred by chance, as the profile was considered quite limited. 

Further support for the DNA link

The fate of Louis XVI’s son fascinated the people of France for many years. However, a recent study has finally cracked the riddle. Louis XVII was imprisoned after his parent’s death and eventually succumbed to tuberculosis. His heart was somewhat macabrely stored in a crystal vase in the Cathedral Basilica of St.Denis. However, many refuted that the remains were those of Louis XVII, as there were rumours that the boy escaped during the riots and was swapped for another youth.

Thanks to DNA analyses which compared the heart to hair cut from Marie Antoinette when she was a little girl, the remains have been confirmed to be that of Louis XVII. 

More recently, a re-analysis of the existing DNA, as well as that of three living descendents of Henry IV and Louis XVI generated the most comprehensive DNA profiles to date. Each individual was determined to have the Y haplogroup R1b1b2a1a1b (R-Z381), and two of these descendents were connected to Louis XVI’s great grandfather, the Duke of Burgundy.

The third was reportedly a descendant of Henri IV’s son, Louis XIII. However, there were a number of differences found between the DNA of these descendents and the royal remains. Unfortunately, this contradicts the rare DNA match found between the head of Henri IV and Louis XVI’s blood. 

It has been theorised that there may have been consistent levels of infidelity in the French royal family. Thus, the lack of a DNA match is not definitive evidence that the blood of Louis XVI and the head of Henri IV are not connected. Hence, the mystery continues. 

The DNA spotlight that we provide at My True Ancestry is the same as the one done on Louis XVI’s blood - take our DNA analysis today and find out if your lineage could be drawn back to Louis XVI!

Five or six hundred heads cut off would have assured your repose, freedom, and happiness. A false humanity has held your arms and suspended your blows; because of this, millions of your brothers will lose their lives.

These rising words are those of Jean-Paul Marat. Known as L’ami du Peuple (Friend of the People), Marat became a figurehead of the French Revolution due to his inspirational yet divisive publications which helped incite the violent nature of this period of political and societal change. Yet Marat’s revolutionary triumph unfortunately led to his demise.

Jean-Paul Marat’s early years

Although much of Jean-Paul Marat’s early years remain unknown, we do know that he was one of nine children born in Boudry, Switzerland, on May 24th, 1743, to lower-middle-class parents. His father, Jean-Mara, was well educated, but his Huguenot lineage limited his employment opportunities due to religious associations.

Jean-Paul originally studied medicine and successfully practiced as a physician for several years in France and England. However, poor recognition for his work in this area, as well as for his scientific prowess, left Marat feeling underappreciated.

Although his essay A Philosophical Essay On Man (1773) was published in France and Amsterdam, his others had little success. For this reason, his articles began to take on more of a political influence, such as The Chains of Slavery (1774), where he addressed the concept of an “aristocracy” - a theme which was to become the predominant subject of the majority of his works.

After his return to France in 1977, Marat became the lead physician to the comte d’Artois’ personal guards - Louis XVI’s younger brother. In 1783, Marat resigned from his position as a medical practitioner, more than likely to concentrate on his scientific pursuits.

Jean-Paul Marat’s influence

Marat published what was to become known as his favorite piece of work in 1782; A Plan de Legislation Criminelle. The paper contained many progressive ideas, including the notion that all citizens should be provided with basic facilities to accommodate their needs - such as food and shelter, that there should be a regulated death penalty regardless of social class, that the king was no more than a magistrate, and that a jury of twelve men should be established in each town to ensure fair trials.

In 1978 - the year that the french revolution began, Marat wrote a paper called Offrande a la patrie (Offerring to Our Country) where he further expanded on the concept of the monarchy stepping in to solve France’s lower class issues. He continued this point in a number of further papers, suggesting that the king was not concerned with the needs of the people of France and instead only cared about his own finances.  

Marat’s academic papers were often met with derision and rejection both academically and occupationally. So much so that descriptions of him as a person focused on his lack of physical attributes and apparent unpleasant odor. He was even described as a “...horribly ugly little man, almost a dwarf….”

Truthfully, Marat’s appearance was as much a topic of conversation as his papers were. From his flamboyant clothing such as robes, open shirts, and headscarves to the open sores and blisters on his skin, Marat was an easily recognized character that likely suffered from a chronic skin condition.

However, despite his alarming appearance, Marat’s radical views and voracious manner of delivering them garnered popularity among the lower-classes in Paris and its surrounding provinces. His paper L’ami du Peuple (Friend of the People) was supported by both poor Parisians and anyone who opposed the monarchy. Even though attempts were made to silence him by authorities, Marat managed to evade imprisonment with the help of his fans and continued to publish his political pages as often as he could.

Eventually, in August 1792, King Louis XVI was forcefully removed from power. The next month saw the beginning of the executions of people of power that Marat had been so vocal in encouraging. This was considered to be the beginning of the French Revolution, and Marat was voted to the National Convention - a parliament of the revolution. However, many people considered Marat to be at fault for the September executions. His continuing radical viewpoints and actions, combined with his bizarre appearance, caused most to keep a safe distance from him.

Marat eventually focused his attention on the Girondin party - a conservative political faction of the revolution. He was forced into hiding (often in the Parisien sewers) when they attempted to silence him, but he continued to focus on Girondin leaders in L’ami du Peuple, and with the aid of the people of Paris, unseated the Girondin party and arrested its leaders.

Jean-Paul Marat’s death

On July 13th 1793, armed with the desire to rid France of the “monstrous” Jean-Paul Marat, a young woman with Girondin affiliations named Charlotte Corday managed to wrangle entry into the apartment in which Marat had been sheltering because of his increasingly ill-health by claiming to have information on the activities of renegade Girondins. This is believed to have caused a debilitating skin condition, which caused him to spend most of his time in the bathtub in an attempt to ease his discomfort, soaking in a variety of different medicines, herbs, and minerals.

After a brief discussion, Corday produced a five-inch knife from her corset and passionately drove it into Marat’s chest, rupturing the artery close to his heart. Marat bled out quickly, crying out his final words to his wife, “Aidez-moi, ma chere amie!” Help me, my beloved.

The blood-stained parchment in Marat's hand and the newspapers that surrounded the bathtub were kept and used to sample his DNA. Corday was quickly put on trial and guillotined in Paris within 4 days.

Marat's funeral was a big event in Revolutionary France, and every member of the National Convention attended. 

If you want to know whether your DNA could be linked to the famous revolutionary, you can find out with My True Ancestry!

In 1991 - high up in the Oztal Alps - hikers found the mummified body of a fugitive man who lost his life between 3400 and 3100 BC.

This man - Ötzi the Iceman - continues to spark the interest of archaeologists 5,300 years after his death due to the mysterious circumstances around how and why he died, his amazingly preserved body, his tattoos, and even the contents of his stomach. 

“Ötzi” is clearly a nickname for the Iceman, as his true name is well and truly buried in time. Instead, he was named after the Oztal Alps, where he was found.

Due to where he was discovered, it was presumed that he had died from exposure to the freezing elements while navigating the rugged terrain. However, in 2001, ten years after he was unveiled in a melting glacier, an X-ray revealed that Ötzi’s death was far less peaceful than initially thought.

As Europe’s most ancient natural mummy, Ötzi the Iceman offers unparalleled information about life in the Copper Age.

What do we know about Ötzi from his body?

Scientists have spent many years analyzing as many minute details as possible of Ötzi’s diminutive form - from his many tattoos to his tooth decay, sheepskin jacket and goatskin leggings, and even the parasites that resided in his gut.

It was easily determined that Ötzi had brown hair, was in his mid-forties at his time of death, had a gap between his front teeth, a size 7.5 foot, and a flint arrowhead rooted deep in his shoulder - indicating that he had been hunted and bled to death as a result.

Yet one feature of Ötzi’s body left scientists baffled - his stomach couldn’t be located where it was supposed to be.

In fact, it took them 20 years to eventually find it - for unexplained reasons, it had shifted up underneath his ribs, where the lungs would usually be found.

To the scientist’s excitement, Ötzi’s stomach still contained the remnants of his last meal - dried ibex, deer, and einkorn wheat were relatively undigested, indicating that Ötzi was killed approximately one hour after he had eaten. 

Analysis of Ötzi’s hair provided information about his potential profession - high levels of copper and arsenic indicated that he might have been involved in some form of copper smelting.

This was further compounded by the high-quality copper ax which was found alongside his body. The ax was made from an artfully crafted yew with a right-angled crook that led to the blade.

The blade was almost pure copper and was forged through a combined casting, polishing, and sharpening method. At the time of Ötzi’s death, such a possession would have been considered highly valuable and would likely have signified a certain status for its owner. 

However, despite possession of the ax, a detailed examination of the deterioration of Ötzi’s tibia, femur, and pelvis, indicated the possibility that Ötzi was possibly a shepherd. He clearly did a lot of strenuous lower body work, so he may have spent a lot of time navigating uneven and high terrain. Ötzi was not in good health at the time of his death, as his fingernails revealed a repetitive sickness, the last bout of which occurred roughly two weeks before his death.

Making sense of Ötzi’s tattoos

This has proven to be a bit of a conundrum to scientists. Much of this is due to his body being 5,300 years old - so his skin has seen a lot of wear and tear! Many of his tattoos were invisible to the naked eye because they were applied by repeatedly piercing the top layer of skin and rubbing in charcoal; dark ink isn’t immediately identifiable on aged, brown skin. This made it difficult to account for exactly how many tattoos he had, but recently, 61 have been accounted for.

Ötzi’s tattoos have been organized into 19 groups by their patterns of horizontal or vertical lines.

Because of their location on the joints (and the fact that Ötzi had arthritis), it is thought that the tattoos may have served a pain-relieving purpose. However, more recently, a chest tattoo for which no obvious ailments were found indicates that perhaps there was a more decorative reason for the inking.

This theory could be refuted by the possibility that Ötzi likely suffered from undiagnosed ailments in this area.

What caused Ötzi’s death?

As well as experiencing probable stomach pains due to the contents of his stomach, Ötzi died under clear duress. He had a severely injured right hand as it had been sliced to the bone between the thumb and forefinger, and his body harbored approximately 75 different forms of bryophytes - a type of moss and liverwort found at different altitudes in the Alps.

This suggests that Ötzi spent his last days tumultuously climbing up and down the alps in a desperate attempt to flee from whoever was chasing him. Furthermore, CT scans revealed that three or four of his ribs had been cracked. This potentially occurred after his death however, as he may have been crushed by the ice that kept him hidden for thousands of years.

Ötzi was likely not killed for the sake of robbery; his valuable ax was still with his body thousands of years later. Instead, the injury on Ötzi’s hand may be the most telling factor regarding his murder.

From the amount of healing seen on the wound, it was determined to be approximately one to two days old at the time of his death. Furthermore, it was an apparent defensive injury. Therefore, it was hypothesized that Ötzi might have been involved in a violent argument - one of which he was likely the winner of, considering that there were no other significant injuries on his body. He was shot with an arrow from approximately 100 feet and seemingly for revenge. Although, this theory will likely never be confirmed. 

Ötzi's genetics show great affinity to modern Sardinia and it is thought if you have ancestors stem from the region between Sardinia and the Alps, there is a chance you could be related to Ötzi. Would you like to find out if your DNA could be connected to Ötzi the Iceman? Take our ancient DNA analysis to find it out today!

“It’s not that I succeed, it’s that everyone else has to fail, horribly, preferably in front of their parents” - Attila the Hun

More than 1500 years after Attila the Hun’s death, this quote still accurately surmises how people view him - as a ferocious destroyer that brought nations to their knees.

Attila was the notorious leader of the Huns, a nomadic people that garnered a brutal reputation for conquering much of Western Europe and terrifying hoards of communities in the process. Yet, Attila’s reputation might have been inflated in regards to his prowess, as he may not have been the prolific conqueror that he became known for.

Who were the Huns?

The answer to why Attila the Hun is known as one of the most infamous brutish personalities in history may lie in the fact that the Huns rose from relative insignificance to power. They attacked anyone who stood in their path, including the Vandals, Visigoths, Goths, and a number of other ancient civilisations.

The origins of the Huns still remains a mystery. Whereas some historians argue that they were the progeny of the Xiongnu people - for whom the great wall of china was built to protect against -  others debate that they more likely came from Kazakhstan or other parts of Asia.

The Huns were equestrian masters and are even thought to have slept on horseback. They first garnered the attention of the Greeks in approximately 375 as they impressed with their ability to shoot arrows with incredible accuracy, even during rapid gallop. Due to these skills, and the fact that Rome’s heydays were already behind it, the Huns were able to destabilise the Roman Empire in the battle of Adrianople with the help of the Goths and compounded the Hun’s savage reputation.

Before the 4th century, the Huns had no known individual leader. Instead, they gathered in small groups which were led by chieftains. However, this pattern changed when Attila the Hun went to extreme measures to become their sole figurehead.

Who was Attila the Hun

Attila the Hun was born in a province of the Roman Empire (present-day Hungary) in approximately 406.

Our knowledge of him varies somewhat in accuracy, as the Huns didn’t document their footprint. In fact, there is even doubt regarding whether "Attila” was his real name, as it could be translated as "Little-Father" - similar to the name given to the first president of Turkey. However, the Roman’s writings provided enough information for historians to piece together a timeline for Attila and the formation of his empire.

Attila and his brother, Bleda, succeeded their uncle Rugila to co-rule the Huns. That is, until a mysterious hunting trip on which Attila murdered his brother.

However, it is thought that Attila’s hand was forced, as Bleda apparently planned to murder him first. The exact methods Attila used remains unknown.

After such an act, it is no wonder that Attila was seen as so inhumane that it was said that “the grass never grew on the spot where his horse had trod.” However, it was clear that he encouraged this impression, as he even referred to himself as flagellum Dei - the scourge of God.

After he became leader of the Huns, Attila thundered his way through much of Europe, pillaging Gaul (modern day France, parts of Italy, and western Germany). At this point, the Roman Empire became concerned, thus they paired with other tribes such as the Visigoths in an attempt to put a stop to the Hun’s invasive scourge.

Stories tell of how the night before battle, Attila saw how his army would fall against the Romans and Visigoths. Yet, perhaps this was just awareness that his army was up against a more than worthy opponent.

On the Catalaunian plains, tens of thousands of Hun soldiers were felled in combat and Attila was forced to admit defeat. However, his loss didn’t stop him from continuing to ravage cities throughout Italy.

Attila passed away in the year 453, having failed to conquer Rome. Legend has it that he spared the city after having visions of St. Peter and St. Paul, who warned him to reach an agreement with Pope Leo I, or else they would strike him dead. Thus, even when he was merciful, he did so for self-serving reasons. Although perhaps it was wise due to the fragile shape of his troops at this time. While planning an attack against Constantinople, Attila passed away after choking on his own blood on his wedding night.

Many believe that we have much to learn from a civilisation such as the Huns that could rise from very little to overcome so many nations. If you would like to know if you have a DNA association with the Huns, then you can find out with My True Ancestry.

The Ottoman Empire was formed in approximately 1300 by Turkish tribes and grew to become one of the most powerful civilisations in the world at that time.

At the height of its might, the empire expanded over three continents and controlled some of the world’s more profitable trade routes, hence its considerable wealth and strength.

Although they were viewed by western Europeans as a threat, historians typically regard the Ottoman Empire as a fount of stability, as well as artistic, cultural, and scientific influence. Yet, all powerful empires must start somewhere, so how did the Ottoman empire form, and who was responsible for its success?

The formation of the Ottoman Empire

The Ottoman Empire originated in Anatolia (Asia Minor) and developed into one of the most influential states in the world in the 15^th and 16^th centuries.

It existed for over 600 years – making it one of the longest-lasting dynasties in the history of the world - and included countries now known as Egypt, Israel, Palestinian territories, Bulgaria, Greece, Hungary, Lebanon, Romania, Syria, Macedonia, as well as sections of Arabia and northern Africa – by no means a small area!

During the genesis of their expansion, the Ottomans battled for their Islamic faith against the Byzantine state, which was predominantly Christian but was also floundering in power. In the mid 11^th century, the Ottoman nomads who had migrated from central Asia overtook Byzantium and conquered eastern and central Anatolia.

The Ottomans had a chief leader, known as a Sultan, who was given complete authority over religious and political affairs. It was during Suleiman the Magnificent’s reign between 1520 and 1566 that the Ottoman Empire reached its peak, as they obtained significant strength, influence, stability, and wealth.

This was due to Suleiman’s uniform system of law and interest in cultivating different forms of arts and literature. Thus, the Ottoman’s became renowned for their artistic and scientific achievements, and during Suleiman’s reign, major cities in the empire, such as Istanbul, became prominent artistic hubs.

It wasn’t until the 1600s that the Ottoman Empire began to lose some of its might and influence, as Europe began to flourish economically and militarily due to the Renaissance and Industrial Revolution.

As a result, the Ottoman Empire began to weaken, especially as it was no longer a trading powerhouse as it was struggling to compete with the Americas and India. However, the empire didn’t officially end until 1922, when the title of Sultan was abolished.

Mustafa Kemal Atatürk founded the Republic of Turkey in 1923 and went on to serve as its first president until his death in 1938.

Osman I – the father of the Ottoman Empire

The name “Ottoman” was gleaned from the founder of the empire – Osman I - in approximately 1300 but rarely in history has there been so little known about such a historically influential figure.

Osman I was a leader of the Turkish tribes in Anatolia and the founder of the original Ottoman Empire in roughly 1299. The exact date of Osman’s birth is debated, but it is known that he was born during the 13^th century.

Osman was a Seljuk Turk – a group that arrived from the Asiatic steppes in the 11^th century, but it is also thought that he may have been a member of the Kayi tribe of Oghuz Turks who were a driving force behind the Islamic faith.

It wasn’t until more than a century after Osman I’s death that his life and impact were documented, thus, his existence is considered by many professionals in the field as a “historical black hole.”However, we do know that Osman was given the moniker of “Kara”, which in those days meant “black”, and thus, a brave and honourable person. Even in the modern Turkish language, “Kara” is used to describe someone generous, fair, and with military prowess. Therefore, it is clear that Osman I was held in high regard.

The fact that Osman was valued was made clear through the tradition of his successors wearing his sword, girded by his belt. This began with his immediate descendant and continued through the line of sultans that followed throughout the Ottoman Empire's reign. It stood as a reminder that their success and status was attributable to Osman and his reign.

Osman's influence on the battlefield pervaded for approximately 300 years, as his successors were regularly seen in combat. However, as the Ottoman Empire began to weaken, so too did the Sultan's resolve, and they began to evade their military responsibilities.

The Ottoman Empire's influence is still very much present in modern-day Turkey.

If you would like to know if you have a DNA connection to this prominent civilisation, then My True Ancestry can help.  

The Hittite civilisation could potentially be considered somewhat obscure in regards to overall world history. This could be due to the fact that there used to be a considerable divide over how people viewed this ancient nation.

The Hittites were mentioned over fifty times in the old testament of the Bible, causing many critics to claim that this was evidence that the civilisation was a myth. For a long time, this belief was compounded by the fact that both historians and archaeologists had very little information or physical evidence for their footprint. However, over the last century, a wealth of archaeological finds has not only proven the Hittites existence but also how influential they were as a culture.

Who were the Hittites?

The Hittites, named as such because of their association with the biblical Hittites, were an ancient civilisation of Indo-Europeans who began to settle in the area now known as Turkey in approximately 1900 BCE.

They share a language with modern-day cultures in the Americas, Europe, and parts of Asia. Although the Hittites thrived during the Bronze Age, they were more instrumental in the Iron Age due to their skills at forging Iron tools which were significantly more efficient than previous ones made out of Bronze.

It is thought that the Hittites were pluralistic, thus, they worshipped a variety of gods, and - like other pagan cultures - engaged in rituals such as sacrifice. For this reason, many Christians believe that this brought down the wrath of God on the Hittites, resulting in their destruction with the aim of eliminating pagan practices. However, their actual downfall was more likely due to their split into many independent “Neo-Hittite” city-states, some of which even continued until the 8th Century BCE.

Similar to many other Indo-European cultures, the Hittites domesticated horses which meant that were capable of long-distance journeys and therefore migration and settlement in distant lands. For this reason, the Hittite Empire was able to grow and flourish into one of the most powerful civilisations of ancient times.

For a long time, this was debated by scholars, as they thought the Hittites were more likely a humble nation, however, the archaeological discovery of Hattusa – a city which was previously believed to be a myth – was evidence of the Hittites prowess.

Soon after the discovery of Hattusa, the treaty of Kadesh in Egypt was uncovered, as well as other important historical artefacts such as documents and tablets. However, it is the nucleus of this civilisation, Hattusa, which reveals the truth about the Hittites great empire.

Their Capital City, Hattusa

The great city of Hattusa wasn’t uncovered until 1834, thus, for many years it was thought to be mythological.

Excavated close to the Kizil river and a large forest, it is clear to see why the area was ideal for establishing a city as the land was suitable for agriculture and the nearby hills were appropriate for pasturing livestock.

Furthermore, several tributary rivers provided plentiful water for the Hittites, but as they were too small for ships, most of the transportation within the confines of the city was by land.

Although archaeologists are still uncovering facts about the Hittites and their capital, they have been able to answer many questions about this fascinating civilisation.

Excavations uncovered an archive of royal annals, chronicles, lists of rulers, deeds, codes of law, treaties, mythological and religious texts, as well as a variety of other writings and astrological predictions. These detailed clay tables are known as the Bogazkoy Archives, named after the city of Bogazkoy in which they were found, within the site of Hattusa.

Hattusa has also shown signs of remarkable urbanisation for a civilisation of this period. It was fortified against invasion by a city wall which was eight kilometres in length and decorated by a variety of ornate features including the Lion’s Gate, the Sphinx Gate, and the King’s Gate.

During this period, these three gates were surely a formidable and imposing sight to behold. Hattusa also had a labyrinth of internal walls which divided the city into distinct districts. Furthermore, extraordinary architecture such as the Grand Temple and an open-air temple called Yazilikaya which was adorned with statues of Gods and Goddesses are also indicative of how advanced the Hittite culture was.

In fact, Hattusa is a perfect example of a thriving ancient civilisation and its people, and it remains a testament to how powerful and influential the Hittites were.

If you are interested in finding out if you have a DNA link to this foregone empire, then take our free analysis and find out today.

From Horse-lords to warrior women, the Sarmatians were a powerful tribal confederation who used their skills at warfare to carve an indelible mark on history.

However, they are typically not a familiar name on many people’s lips, which may lead to the question of who they were and what they achieved.

Who were the Sarmatians?

The Sarmatians were a collective of fierce and powerful tribes who were originally part of a larger group of peoples called the Scythians. However, due to their military prowess and skills on the battlefield, the Sarmatians quickly usurped the Scythians.

They also left an enduring impression on the Eurasian Steppe -  a vast belt of grasslands, savannas, and shrublands that extended approximately 5000 miles from Hungary, through Ukraine and Central Asia, to Manchuria in the East. This area was dissected into distinct regions by mountain ranges, but this wasn’t a problem for the Sarmatians; like other nomadic tribes such as the Avars, they were skilled horsemen. Thus their lifestyle centred around the herding of horses as they facilitated their gathering of food, hunting, clothing, and success in battle.

As previously mentioned, the Sarmatians weren’t a singular tribe but instead a collective of nomadic groups that spoke the same language, one which is believed to be similar to modern Persian.

According to the Greek writer Strabo, the following groups were the main subgroups of the Sarmatians; the Sauromatae, the Roxolani, the Aorsi, the Siraces, and the Lazyges.

As a group, they seemed to have combined the manners typical of Asiatic barbarians with the appearance of ancient European civilisations. As Hippocrates once put it: “The people are swarthy, short, and fat, of a relaxed and phlegmatic temperament; the women are not fruitful, but their slaves being lean give birth to many children.”

Although this account of the Sarmatians could hardly be considered romantic in tone, the Sarmatians were clearly a source of inspiration for the Greeks.

In Greek mythology, the Amazons were fierce warrior women who resided in distant lands. However, the Amazons were likely based on the Sarmatians. Sarmatian women were as capable on horseback as the Sarmatian men and were also skilled in battle as they wore similar armour and could shoot arrows and javelins while riding. It is also possible that the Sarmatian society had a matriarchal influence, and thus women were seen as capable leaders. Although, as soon as Sarmatian women entered into marriage, they were no longer permitted to be fierce warrior women as they were expected to focus their energy on bearing children.

The rise and fall of Sarmatia

It is thought that the Sarmatians and the Scythians lived in relative harmony until the 3rd century B.C. However, documentation from this point in time relates an account of the Sarmatians crossing into the Scythian territories north of the Black Sea and forced them from their lands, thus replacing them as the rulers of almost all southern Russia.

Once the Sarmatians had secured a position of power, they allied with Germanic tribes. This brought them to the attention of the Romans, as the Germanic tribes were considered to be a threat to the Roman Empire.

In their remaining centuries of power, the Sarmatians invaded the area known as modern-day Romania and the lower Danube. Still, they couldn’t rally against the might of the Goths in the 3^rd Century A.D. Although many of the Sarmatian tribes were assimilated by the Goths, the rest were felled by the Huns during their relentless besiegement. 

Evidence from the 5th century shows that the Sarmatians still controlled parts of the Eurasian Steppe, but over time they ended up ceasing to exist as a distinct civilisation due to the increasing influence of the Proto-Slavic population.

Curious to find out whether you have a DNA link to the Sarmatian horse lords and warrior women? You can find out with My True Ancestry.

Over 7000 feet above sea level in the Andes Mountains, sits one of the new Wonders of the World. And rightly it should be known as such; Machu Picchu’s name, meaning “old peak” or “old mountain in the Quechua Indian tongue belies its beauty.

It consists of large walls, terraces, and thousands of steps carved into the rock escarpments as though they formed organically.

Undoubtedly, it was one of the more impressive urban constructions of the Incan Empire during the height of their influence. Yet, below the more than 150 buildings, temples, and sanctuaries, out of sight of the millions of tourists that visit the site every year, lies the true wonder of Machu Picchu.

The Incan Engineering Skills

The creators of this ancient site had more than just complex architecture on their list of skills; to the envy of many modern builders, the Incans were clearly incredibly evolved engineers, as they demonstrated these skills through their complex irrigation system of culverts and channels underneath Machu Picchu.

This system navigated the flow of water into channels and fountains, and unbelievably, it still works to this day. It is perhaps this intricate understanding of water that led the Incans to prowess in another feat of engineering, the likes of which had not been seen anywhere else in the western hemisphere at this time – their road building.

The Inca Road

The Inca road system is believed to be the greatest feat of engineering to have been accomplished by pre-Hispanic Americans. Entirely constructed by hand - without any form of iron or wheel - it stretches approximately 3,700 miles along the Andes, from what is known as present-day Columbia to Chile.

Although it continues to be known as the Inca Road, it is far from a singular path and instead consists of a network of trails that interact very similarly to a modern-day road system of motorways, primary roads, and secondary roads. In fact, the complexity of the system transformed a tiny kingdom into a thriving empire as it linked hundreds of communities.

Much of the reason for the sustainability of the Inca Road comes from their understanding of and respect for the environment – Mother Nature was at the root of all their choices.

Water destroys most roads, so the Incans designed their steps to naturally dissipate the water’s force and therefore reduce its erosive power. Furthermore, they used local stone on the higher mountainous altitudes to help protect the road’s surface from cracking and chipping due to repeated ice formation and thaw.

What’s more, the Incas understood that they were building in an area that was prone to seismic activity, which has generated great interest from modern engineers as they attempt to emulate their techniques.

The spirituality of the Inca Road

However, for the Andean people - both from the past and those currently living there – the Inca Road is considerably more than just an admirable transport system. It is a connection to the spiritual world.

An example of this occurs every June; in an area called Huinchiri which sits at more than 12,000 feet in altitude, the residents of four villages prepare bushels of long, coarse grasses and manipulate them into narrow ropes, which in turn are twisted together to form cables. These villagers then descend the mountain to the edge of a rocky canyon above the Apurímac River. At this point, the village elders give blessings to nature as they sacrifice small animals. After this ritual, they spend three days treacherously linking one side of the ravine to the other by using the old bridge from the previous year which has become weather-worn and sun dried. Once complete, the old bridge is cut and is allowed to fall into the rushing waters of the river below. The new bridge now links both sides of the ravine, and thus the spiritual and physical world. Therefore, it is clear that the Inca Road is a living road for reasons beyond the fact that the Andean people still use and worship it, but instead because it continues to thrive with their energy and spirit.

The pervading interest in the Inca Road is not just because it is a feat of incredible engineering and devotion; it’s because of the determination to use an ancient culture’s knowledge to help us to understand some of the methods and processes of the past and bring them into the future.

If you would like to know whether you could have a DNA link to the Incans, then you can find out with My True Ancestry.

In December 2012, people all around the world waited with either bated breath or scornful disbelief. The reason? Many of them believed that the world was soon going to come to an end. Not because of global warming, not because of nuclear war, but because the Mayan Calendar was about to culminate.

Luckily, several years later, the world is still here, but the mystery around why the Maya chose to stop their calendar at this specific time led to all sorts of speculation, such as the coming of a new messiah or unspeakable disasters.

However, the Maya foretold no catastrophes or second comings. Due to this fact, and because even historians still regularly disagree about certain facets of this ancient civilisation, the Maya and their calendar have intrigued modern cultures to this day.

Who were the Maya?

The Maya were one of the more established and dominant indigenous civilisations of Mesoamerica (an area we know now as Mexico and Central America).

Unlike many of the other indigenous groups of this period, the Maya situated in one specific geographical area in the tropical lowlands of what is currently Guatemala, the Yucatan Peninsula, Belize, Honduras, El Salvador, and parts of Mexico. The sheer size and spread of this ancient population helped to prevent invasion from other indigenous tribes. 

The Maya were excellent architects and their stone cities and temples are instantly recognisable due to their unique craftsmanship and artwork. However, their buildings weren’t the only legacy that the Maya left behind, as they are known to have been skilled at hieroglyphics, agriculture, pottery, mathematics, and their pervading influence - the Mayan calendar.

The Mayan Calendar

What we refer to as the Mayan calendar, is actually three interlocking calendars called the Tzolkin, the Haab, and the Long Count Calendar. The Maya used these calendars in tandem whenever they marked a wall of a temple or a monument with a date.

The Tzolkin calendar is also known as the sacred calendar as priests used it to keep track of religious ceremonies and celebrations, as well as to figure out the best times to plant crops and harvest them. The term Tzolkin also means “the distribution of days” as it consisted of 260 days and 20 periods which made up the 260 days. Bear with me – this gets a little complicated! Similar to how we structure weeks and months, the 20 periods consisted of 13 days which had their own numbers, as well as 20 different names. Once the day count reached 13, they repeated, but the 20 names continued until they ran out, at which point they started again. This pattern continued until it depleted and then it returned to the first number and name in the 260-day cycle.  

The Haab was also known as the solar calendar and, similar to our year, it consisted of 365 days. However, the Maya broke these days up into 18 months that were made up of 20 days each. The Haab also included one very short month called the Wayeb which consisted of five days at the end of the year, and interestingly, it was seen as an incredibly unfortunate time when unlucky and dangerous things were more likely to happen. For this reason, during Wayeb, the Maya went out of their way to avoid outside interaction and therefore neglected most of their tasks and responsibilities. The Haab is actually slightly inaccurate, as a tropical or solar year takes slightly longer than 365 days, hence the reason why the Gregorian calendar added an extra day – the 29th February, also known as a leap day.

The Long Count Calendar was necessary for keeping track of longer periods. It was an astronomical calendar that counted the days all the way back to the beginning of time, which the Maya believed to be the 11th August, 3114 B.C. The Maya referred to the Long Count as the “universal cycle” as each sun cycle was calculated to be approximately 7885 solar years long. They also held the belief that once this cycle had run its course, then the universe was destroyed and recreated – hence the furore and theories around the end of 2012!

We know – it’s very complex. In fact, many still wonder why the Mayan calendar was so intricate.

The reason for this lies somewhat with the Maya priests as they made all the major decisions about when religious dates fell. Therefore, they created it to be as elaborate as they required, thus, the average Maya had no reason to fully understand their calendar.

Interestingly, the Mayan calendar was also used to predict the future in a similar way to the astrological zodiac as the Maya believed that the time of year in which someone was born determined their fate in life. Perhaps, in part, this is the reason why so many people placed so much stock in their calendar and what it meant when it came to an end. 

Would you like to know whether you have a DNA link to the Maya that still occupy parts of southern Mexico and the Maya highlands? You can find out with My True Ancestry.

“All that we see or seem

         Is but a dream within a dream.”

Many of us instantly recognise this as Edgar Allan Poe’s A Dream Within a Dream. Similarly, we are probably equally as familiar with the writings of Bram Stoker, Mary Shelley Frankenstein, and Ann Radcliffe.

This is because, in the 18th and 19th centuries, a new genre of literature with a dark, yet romantic, style emerged and thrived – hence its pervading popularity.

This gothic influence also made its way into modern subculture by way of music, fashion, and art. It would be understandable to presume that the genesis of the gothic influence began with the literature, but, surprisingly, this isn’t the case. It was actually named after the places in which the novels were set, immediately transporting us to the moody landscapes of countries such as Italy and Romania in the middle ages.

Beyond this point though, most of us probably don’t really think about the origin of the term gothic. To answer the question of its inception, we have to travel much further back in time to that of an ancient civilisation called the Visigoths.

The Goths and the Visigoths

The Goths were a Germanic tribe who helped to bring about the fall of the Roman Empire, thus, marking the beginning of Europe’s medieval period. However, knowledge of this group before this is a mystery to historians.

This could be because information about them was sparse before their interactions with the Romans, as their documents were mostly runic, and many didn’t survive the test of time. Those that did, contain little information about their practices and day to day life. In fact, the only account that we have of them before this time is from the gothic writer Jordanes who claimed that the Goths originated on an island called “Scandza”, which to the modern-day tongue sounds strikingly similar to Scandinavia.

The nomadic Goths to the west of the continent were known as the Visigoths, while those to the east were known as the Ostrogoths. It was the Visigoth’s ancestors who can be credited for bringing down the Roman Empire.

The 3rd century was a prolific time for the Goths, especially the tribe that the Visigoths were descendent from – the Thervingi - as they launched a number of invasions against both Roman-controlled Greece and the Roman Empire itself. Following a battle in Adrianople in which the Goths defeated the Romans, the two civilisations simultaneously became trading allies and competitive forces for a number of decades. However, the Goths were soon to triumphantly rise to power after the succession of Alaric I, the first Visigoth King.

Alaric I – King of the Visigoths

Alaric, whose name means “ruler of all” was a nobleman by birth. Surprisingly, he actually served as a member of the Roman army for many years, helping them to defeat the Franks. However, Rome never properly recognised Alaric’s prowess and after the death of the Roman Emperor, Theodosius, Alaric left the Roman army and was elevated in status to become the first king of the Visigoths.

After Rome reneged on promises of land and supplies made to the Visigoths, Alaric began his invasion by marching his army towards Istanbul before they were pushed back by Roman forces. However, they progressed their march by moving into Greece and sacking many of their major cities. Eventually, in 401 A.D., Alaric and his Visigoth army invaded Italy, but they were initially defeated by the Roman general, Stilicho, and, thus, they were forced to retreat - albeit temporarily.

Despite continued efforts, a second Visigoth invasion of the Roman Empire also ended in defeat. However, favour was to eventually look upon them, as General Stilicho was murdered and the opportunity to invade Rome was grasped by an antibarbarian tribe. This tribe ordered the massacre of the wives and children of any soldiers serving in the Roman army, thus, these soldiers turned to Alaric for support, and resultingly, his military power increased.

Although Alaric would have preferred peace, the Visigoth requests were still refused, and Alaric felt like he was left with no other option but to invade Rome until his tribe’s wishes were granted. The western emperor, Honorius, remained obstinate, however, and in 409 A.D. the Visigoth army surrounded Rome and blockaded it until a new emperor, Attalus, was declared.

However, Attalus was not the emperor that Alaric had hoped for, as he continued to deny him and his army access into Africa.

Once again, Alaric surrounded Rome, but this time, Allies opened the gates to the city. For the first time in nearly 800 years, Rome was occupied by a foreign troop. Alaric and the Visigoths proved themselves to be commendable inhabitants, however, as they treated the Romans with regard and damaged as little of the city as possible. No longer intending to occupy Africa, the Visigoths ventured north after their invasion of Rome and Alaric passed away during their march.

As you can see, having Gothic lineage extends considerably further back than just the literature.

If you would like to know if you have Visigoth DNA in your history, then My True Ancestry can help.

Few ancient civilisations have captured the regard of romantics and idealists as much as the Etruscans.

Not only did this ancient civilisation possess progressive attitudes towards women, art, and architecture, but they are considered to be the first “superpower” of the western Mediterranean and laid the foundations for one of the earliest cities in Europe.

Yet who the Etruscans actually were, where they originated from, and what happened to them are mysteries that have drawn the attention of archaeologists and historians alike over many years.

One thing is for sure, due to the Etruscan’s persistent influence over modern society, curiosity over who they were will never fade. 

Where did the Etruscans originate?

Rarely has a civilisation existed that has garnered as much debate about their origins as the Etruscans. Even ancient writers differed in opinions regarding whether they were indigenous to Etruria (now known as Tuscany, Umbria, and Lazio) or whether they originated from Asia Minor.

Herodatus, the Greek historian, testified that the Etruscans migrated from Lydia (part of Asia Minor now known as Turkey) to Etruria during a time of hardship when Lydia’s lands couldn’t sustain enough crops to feed its people.

There have been linguistic studies that support this claim, as undeniable similarities were uncovered between the Etruscan language and the language used in Lydia. For example, the Lydian word for wine, mattu, was almost the same as the Etruscan one matu.

However, many modern historians would argue that the Etruscans were indigenous to Etruria and had resided there for many years before they were documented in the area. This belief has been mostly confirmed via modern DNA studies, proving it difficult to refute. Nevertheless, regardless of where the Etruscans originated, the fact that so many cultures lay claim to them is a testament to their pervading influence and legacy.

The Etruscan necropolises of Cerveteri and Tarquinia

As most Etruscan cities are still inhabited, much of their history is hidden under layers of subsequent periods.

Therefore, the majority of our knowledge about Etruscan art and life was derived largely from their burial grounds; the Etruscans believed in equipping their dead with everything that they could possibly need for the afterlife – as is clear from the necropolises of Cerveteri and Tarquinia.

The Etruscan world of the dead made it possible for us to learn more about their world of the living.

The two cemeteries, Cerveteri and Tarquinia, bear witness to the Etruscan’s achievements in culture and architecture and evidence a timeline of burial practices ranging from the 9th to the 1st century BC. The buildings in the necropolises provide valuable insights into the Etruscan’s daily lives as they so strongly believed in building another “home” for their loved ones in the afterlife, that their tombs were smaller versions of their own.

The Cerveteri necropolis consists of tombs that are organised in a city-like structure with streets, neighbourhoods, and even town-squares, illustrating how integral this civilisation was in regards to early city planning.

The necropolis of Tarquinia is more famous for its paintings; 200 tombs are decorated with artwork that dates as far back as the 7th century BC. Rich information about the Etruscan culture can be derived from the beautiful frescoed images on the walls of the tombs and carvings scattered around the necropolis.

The influence of the Etruscans

Part of the reason why the Etruscans remain so mysterious is that virtually all we know about them has come from indirect sources, many of which are ambivalent in nature. However, the Etruscans had an undeniably significant influence on a large part of the Mediterranean, especially on the early Romans.

Their imprint on Roman society included laying the foundations of Rome, the emergence of writing, art and architecture, as well as entertainment such as gladiatorial combat.

The Etruscan influence also tendrilled into the Italian Renaissance in works such as that of Michelangelo and still persists today in the attire of the church. It is clear that through their influence on Roman society, the Etruscans had a widespread impact on Western culture in years to come.

The problem with how mysterious the Etruscans are is that so few clues remain in order to answer all the questions that are asked, and the clues that do exist can be interpreted in many ways.

However, one question that can be answered is whether you could have any Etruscan heritage – find out today with My True Ancestry!

Greek mythology is packed to the brim with legends of ancient gods, heroes, and the nature of the cosmos.

For the Greeks, these stories formed an important part of everyday life and they immortalized their icons through poems and tragic novels which explored the travels of the likes of Odysseus and the exploits of King Agamemnon – but the fact that these myths were predominately fiction was noted as early as the fifth and fourth centuries BC by the philosopher Plato.

However, there might be traces of real-life legends in modern-day Greeks after all, as recent DNA evidence has suggested that they might be the descendants of the ancient populations that created these myths.

Who were the Minoans?

You might be aware of the legendary tales of King Minos, Daedalus, and the Minotaur, as well as many other characters from Greek Mythology, but as it turns out, these stories likely originated with the Minoans; inhabitants of the island of Crete, and, in fact, the oldest recorded population in that area. They may not exactly have been a Greek civilisation, but they certainly exerted a large cultural influence on what was to become the Ancient Greeks.

The realisation of the Minoan civilisation wasn’t until the late 19th Century when Sir Arthur Evans unearthed the Bronze Age Palace of Knossos on the island of Crete. Whereas it was previously thought that they arrived in the area from Africa or the Middle East, even by Evans himself, who named them after the legendary King Minos, a DNA analysis of ancient remains has demonstrated that they were, in fact, local in origin.

The Minoan civilisation thrived in the third millennium and were the first literate people of Europe – unsurprising considering the stories which abounded from this age. What is surprising though, is how incredibly advanced they were concerning their artwork and architecture. Evans, upon his discovery, was stunned by the Minoan murals and circular tombs, which bore similarities to ones built by the Ancient Egyptians and Libyans.

However, no structure could rival the grandeur of the Knossos Palace.

The mystery of Knossos Palace

Even Homer couldn’t deny the magnificence of the Knossos Palace in the infamous Odyssey, as he wrote of Crete “Among their cities is the great city of Cnosus, where Minos reigned when nine years old, he held converse with great Zeus.” It was this same King Minos, who in later tales became one of the three judges of the dead in the underworld, who was chosen as namesake for the Minoans. 

Located just south of modern-day Heraklion, Knossos Palace covers a space of land the size of two football fields.

It was the ceremonial and political center of the Minoan culture and is considered by many to be Europe’s oldest city. According to Greek mythology, it was designed by the famous architect Daedalus, and apparently with such complexity, that if it was intended, many who entered were never able to leave.

The site is believed to have been first inhabited in the Neolithic period, from around 7000 BC, until 1500 BC, when the palace was destroyed from what is believed to have been an earthquake. Although it was reconstructed, it was later abandoned between 1380 to 1100 BC for unknown reasons.

Despite being unearthed in 1984, the excavations of Knossos couldn’t begin until 1900 – although the quality of these excavations is still under considerable debate; due to continuous and perhaps misguided renovations, Knossos is considered by many archaeologists to be only a facsimile of its original stature. Yet, even though it may not be an entirely accurate reconstruction, Knossos still offers tourists the valuable chance to sense what the palace might have been like at the height of its heyday.

Some believe that the Palace of Knossos is the same one referred to in the Minotaur story, in which Theseus, son of King Aegeus (namesake of the Aegean sea), sailed to Crete to fight the formidable half-man, half-bull creature; the Minotaur. Legend has it that the Minotaur was King Mino’s son, who he imprisoned in the labyrinth at his castle in Knossos.

According to the story, thanks to sheer wit, Theseus was ultimately triumphant against the beast and fled from Crete with the king’s daughter Ariadne.

Tales such as this make it undeniably clear how intricately woven the Minoans are into the fabric of Greek culture and mythology. If you’re wondering if you have any majestic Minoan culture in your heritage, then find out today with My True Ancestry.

Archaeologist Basil Brown viewed the excavated trench in the burial mound with disappointment; the tumulus had clearly been the target of graverobbers. As it was no longer worth his continued interest, Brown instead decided to turn his attention to the many smaller mounds in its vicinity. Yet, there was something about the larger tumulus which continued to beckon to him.

It wasn’t until the next year when Brown was able to return to the large tumulus, this time with a renewed determination to excavate it deeper than the robbers had attempted.

The year was 1939, in Sutton, England, and a discovery was about to be made which would challenge the moniker of the “Dark Ages” and the way that people all around the world viewed the Anglo-Saxons.

What was found at Sutton Hoo?

As Brown gently brushed back dirt, little by little, rows of rivets slowly emerged to eventually reveal the outline of a twenty-seven-metre ship.

He had just unearthed some of the greatest treasures ever to have been discovered on UK soil; the ship contained a burial chamber packed with feasting vessels, silverware from Byzantium, ornate war gear, and gold and silver accessories.

Brown was shocked – clearly, Sutton Hoo wasn’t a standard burial mound. Instead, it was a spectacular memorial for an obviously important person and an exemplary specimen from a period that had long passed. But who was regarded enough to deserve such a burial? And what kind of insight into the Anglo Saxons can Sutton Hoo give us?

Who was buried at Sutton Hoo?

Whoever was buried at Sutton Hoo was undeniably important; the Anglo-Saxon period wasn’t overly familiar with ship burials, therefore, it stands to reason that whoever was buried there was deemed influential by his society – potentially an Anglo-Saxon king.

What’s more, dragging the boat uphill from the River Deben and positioning it so that it faced west would have required notable manpower, not to mention the amount of effort needed to dig the trench.

Furthermore, the chamber was equipped with all the riches from around the world that anyone could possibly need for the afterlife, such as garnets from Sri Lanka, expensive textiles, and feasting equipment made from silver and gold – evidence that they were undeniably wealthy and connected with the wider world.

There was even a purse that contained enough gold pieces to pay all the oarsmen to carry the person for whom the chamber was intended over to the afterlife. Unfortunately, more than just the wood of the ship rotted away with time, and there is no body left to help answer the question of who Sutton Hoo was intended for.

What does it tell us about the Anglo-Saxon period?

The Anglo-Saxon era was a time before England even existed, so it’s often misunderstood due to a lack of information. In fact, aside from some scatterings of manuscripts, coins, and the odd church, there was not much to tell us about Anglo-Saxon life in comparison to subsequent periods.

Historians referred to the Anglo-Saxon era as “The Dark Ages” as it was seen as a period of “intellectual darkness” before the Renaissance. However, with its breath-taking artistry, international calling cards of wealth, and regard for its dead, Sutton Hoo has done a lot to challenge this misconception.

The one relic found in the burial chamber that has come to define the Anglo-Saxon era is the military helmet that publishers perpetually use to illustrate their magazine covers and thus has reached iconic status.

Although it did carve out the idea of Anglo-Saxon people as warriors in the public mind (albeit more noble ones than previously thought), the rest of the contents of Sutton Hoo such as the remarkable artistry, goods from all around the world, and piles of luxurious jewellery textiles, demonstrate that the Anglo Saxons weren’t as intellectually or culturally bereft as many believed them to be. Instead, they clearly had international connections, influence and wealth, and complex belief systems.

If you’re curious to know whether you have a DNA connection to the Anglo-Saxon era, then you can find out today with My True Ancestry.

Ancient Greece was one of the most important early civilisations in Europe and the influence of its climactic period is still evident in western culture.

In fact, if you’ve ever read a book, kept your money in a bank, competed in a sports event, received modern medicine, or even spoken English, then you have a lot to be thankful to the ancient Greeks for. Yet, surprisingly, ancient Greece’s citizens didn’t regard themselves as “Greek” but instead as belonging to their individual city-state.

What were the city-states?

More often than not, geography plays a critical role in shaping civilisations, and this is particularly true of ancient Greece.

Although our current understanding of Greece is one of a unified country, this was not always the case; ancient Greece was made up of more than a thousand city-states or polis which were spread across the Mediterranean sea.

The irregular landscape of the region was the likely reason for the development of the city-states, as it has many physical barriers to transport and travel such as rocky mountains and numerous islands. This made the sea the easiest mode of conveyance.

Competition for power between the Greek aristocracy was another possible cause for the country’s division into city-states.

According to Homer in his most famous work, The Iliad, the land was broken into smaller regions to restore political order after a conflict between the “Sea Peoples” of the islands and the Mycenaeans (the civilisation who populated ancient Greece). However, facts often gets mixed up with fiction, so the accuracy of Homer’s claims is often debated.

The typical structure of a city-state in Greece was that of an urban centre, which was often fortified, with a sacred building that controlled a surrounding territory constructed on an acropolis (a natural hill) or harbour.

Each city-state was independent of the others as they differed greatly in regard to their politics and government, as well as their legal, social, and religious beliefs. There were over one thousand city-states in ancient Greece, but the main ones are still recognisable worldwide today; Athens, Sparta, Corinth, and Thebes.

Athens

The city-state of Athens was at the centre of Greece’s apogee era - the 5th century BC - as it was the nucleus for democracy, philosophy, and the creation of banking. What’s more, the ancient Athenians placed heavy emphasis on the development of architecture, arts, and literature. 

Athens’ grounding in culture may have stemmed from the city-state’s mythical roots; legend claims that it was captured by the goddess Athena from King Poseidon after a strenuous battle.

The ruins of the Lyceum – the school where Aristotle taught philosophy – can still be seen in the centre of modern Athens. For all of these reasons, it is clear why Athens is still considered to be the birthplace of many significant ideas which have influenced western culture.

Sparta

The city-state of Sparta was a military powerhouse and a major rival to Athens. It consisted of a militaristic society that was ruled by two kings instead of a more democratic regime.

While Athenian’s focus was on architecture and philosophy, the Spartan’s passion was to defend the honour of their city.

Their devotion to the development of a military-based society was the result of a violent slave revolt which made the Spartans rethink their lifestyle. As a result, they encouraged hardiness and strength in their citizens and allocated little energy to arts and literature.

Due to the strength of its army, Sparta could only be controlled by the other major city-states, and eventually, it fell to Thebes in battle in 362 BC.

Currently, all that remains of this powerful city-state is the ruins of temples, columns, a theatre, and a statue of one of their military generals.

Corinth

The remains of Corinth lie approximately 50 miles to the west of Athens at the base of the citadel of the Acrocorinthus – a monolithic rock similar to that of Gibraltar – to a harbour in the Gulf of Corinth.

Its citadel commanded the land route into the Peloponnese region, which afforded the city-state great commercial importance and power. What’s more, Corinth’s sheer size made it a rival to Athens and Sparta, and even in later years, it thrived as a ship-building centre.

Thebes

The mighty city-state of Thebes sits to the north of Athens and Corinth.

It was renowned in Greek legends and literature for being the birthplace of Hercules and it featured in the stories of Oedipus and Dionysus.

The Theban army was also the reason for Sparta’s downfall, as they defeated them in the battle of Leuctra and set many Spartan slaves free.

There was much disagreement over Thebes true name in ancient times, and it was even questioned whether Thebes was actually really a colony on Crete, potentially making them Phoenician in origin.

Would you like to know whether your ancient ancestors were residents of one of ancient Greece’s famous city-states? Find out with My True Ancestry.

The word “vandal” or “vandalism” immediately brings to mind images of destruction, defacement of public areas, and mindless damage to property.

Based on this description, I think that we can all agree that it’s not exactly a flattering definition. But, like the rest of the words that we regularly use, we don’t really question its origin.

So, what is the genesis of vandal and does it deserve the negative connotations that it carries?

The origin of “vandalism” and “vandal”

Like many modern English words, vandalism derives from the French word vandalisme, which was originally used in a 1794 report that described how pieces of artwork were destroyed during the French Revolution. Yet the word Vandal has quite different roots, as it has been used as an English noun since the mid 16th Century to detail a person that wantonly damaged property that was beautiful and admired.

However, before it was used as a noun, vandal was known in English as the term for the German tribe that sacked ancient Rome, a group whose name became so interchangeable with ruination that it became its synonym. Yet, due to the considerably one-sided reports of the Vandals, we must ask the question – did Vandals truly deserve their pervasive reputation?

Who were the Vandals?

The Vandals are thought to have originated in Scandinavia before migrating south and settling in Central Europe, where they became farmers and cattle-herders.

In the 5th Century, they were forced to relocate again towards the Roman provinces of Africa (areas now known as Tunisia and Algeria). Although they took these areas by force, it is important to note that they did so out of necessity; conflicts in the region now known as Spain and Portugal made it impossible for the Vandals to stay, as their very survival was at risk. 

Having captured and made Carthage their capital in 439 A.D., the Vandals were in the direct proximity and influence of the Roman Empire and clearly wanted to claim some of their wealth and cultural prosperity for themselves. However, their manner of going about it may have left much to be desired.

Before we continue, it may be worth acknowledging that the Vandals were a Christian tribe; specifically, Arianism, which was popular at that point in time. However, Arianism took the stance that Christ was secondary to God, and this viewpoint was eventually deemed heretical by the Roman Catholic Church. Thus - as many wars start - the Vandals were religiously opposed to the Roman Empire.

The Vandals sack of Rome

In 455 A.D., the Romans apparently broke an agreement with Vandal King Genseric. Resultingly, the Vandals decided to march on the weakened city of Rome.

Although the Vandals sack of Rome certainly made it into the history books, it might not have been the destructive affair that it was made out to be.

Even though they were considered heretics by the Christian church, Pope Leo I was open to negotiations with them. The Vandals were reasonable to a certain degree and agreed not to destroy Rome as long as they were allowed to enter and plunder it as much as they wished. 

As they were primarily interested in the treasures and wealth of Rome, the Vandals, as agreed, left the city’s buildings as they found them. While doing so, according to some reports, the Vandals took many Roman citizens captive, which likely did their reputation little favour.

A historian from Byzantine recorded that the Vandals burned a church while plundering the city, and it was further reported that numerous ships left Rome filled with Roman captives that ultimately ended up sold as slaves in Africa. Nevertheless, it should be noted that these are one-sided reports, as there are no documents from the Vandals' perspective. 

The Vandals initial sack of Rome led to many years of retaliation, which they were able to keep at bay between the years 460 and 475 AD. However, the Romans were intent on reclaiming their treasures and, eventually, they managed to invade the areas of North Africa where the Vandals resided and conquered the region. Despite this, the Vandals legacy has persisted and is still associated with acts of destruction and damage. Whether or not this is a balanced perspective, however, is an answer hidden in history. 

Are you curious to know whether you have an inner Vandal hidden within your DNA? Find out today with My True Ancestry!

Nowadays, the thought of men battling to the death in an arena full of enthusiastic onlookers seems outrageous, but for the ancient Romans, this was not only a common but popular activity.

The legendary battles drew thousands of spectators, including the biggest names in Roman society. But who were the gladiators? And why did they choose to fight?

Who were the gladiators and why did they do it?

“I will endure being burned, bound, whipped and killed with a sword.”

This was the oath that Gladiators took on their recruitment, so it’s clear that they understood what was expected of them. Yet, surprisingly, they didn’t always have to fight against their will! Being forced into fighting was sometimes a form of punishment, such as for disobedient slaves - their masters likely found it to be an effective management strategy, as the rest of their slaves were probably too scared to disobey after seeing what their future could hold!

Condemned criminals may also have been made to fight against their will. Their fate in the arena could have gone down in one of a number of ways; it might have been decided that they were to die by wild beast, by sword, or, if lucky, they were allowed to fight as a gladiator.

Some gladiators were prisoners of war as they were ideally trained fighters. They were given the choice to either be slaves or fight in the arena for a period of time, after which they would be freed.

The Ancient Romans also enjoyed a novelty act, so for their amusement clowns, dwarfs, and female gladiatrix were also allowed to fight.

Also, remember that in many ways, being a gladiator in Ancient Rome was seen as an exciting and perversely glamourous position. For this reason, it actually wasn’t too uncommon for people to volunteer. They might have done so to show off their prowess, fight for much-needed money, or just to be in control of their own fate rather than let time take its course.

What it was like to fight at the Colosseum

Similar to modern professional fights, gladiatorial games were only organised a few times a year.

The animal entertainment was the first of the day’s affairs; the Venatores and Bestiarii gladiators were chosen from all over the Roman empire as they were specially trained in fighting with all types of animals, from crocodiles and bears to ostriches and elephants. This event was followed up by the popular damnatio ad bestias - criminals slaughtered by wild animals in the most creatively horrific ways imaginable.

However, these events, as popular as they were, were only the warm-up for the afternoon events; the gladiators combating under the heat of the afternoon sun fuelled by the deafening roar of the crowd. Unlike Hollywood depictions, the fights weren’t a bloody-free-for-all but instead operated under strict rules. There was even a referee to oversee the action.

The crowd tended to dictate the fate of a felled gladiator. Even if the emperor signalled for them to live, if the crowd willed it, the victorious gladiator would deliver swift death to his opponent. On some occasions, if the battle was grandiose and exciting enough, the crowd allowed both gladiators to leave with honour.

The different types of gladiator

The Ancient Romans respected “fair play”, so it was quite important that the combatants were equally matched based on what they wielded during battle. There were up to thirty different types of gladiator, but we’ll look at the most common forms:

• Murmillo – the Fish

This type of gladiator was by far one of the more famous – easily identifiable due to their large helmet made of bronze or copper, with a visor grating and neck guard. They used a large shield which covered up to half their body and their weapon of choice was a double-edged sword (gladius).

• Retiarius – the Trident-Wielder

Also one of the more famous forms of gladiator – especially in the Colosseum - the Retiarius defended themselves with a trident, a small dagger, and a net which they used to trap their opponents. Retiarii fought next-to-naked, wearing only a loincloth, an arm-guard, and a shoulder guard.

• Eques – the Gladiators on Horseback

Equites gladiators fought on horseback and carried a spear, a sword, and a round cavalry shield. These gladiators mimicked Roman knights in the arena; they would initially enter the ring on their horse and battle with a lance.

Curious to know if you have any gladiator DNA in your ancient history? Find out today with an AncestryDNA test with My True Ancestry.

When considering certain accounts of the Celts, we may come away with the impression of a somewhat barbaric population famous for their rage, their uncouth appearance, and their fear of an eclipse.

But through archaeological findings, this impression has shown to be far from accurate – instead, the Celts were clearly one of the most influential civilisations that existed.

Their influence is seen in art and culture across different countries, even today. Yet, many of us are still confused about who the Celts actually were...

Who were the Celts?

Although it’s thought that the Celts originated as early as 400 BC, they were first documented in the seventh and eighth centuries B.C.

They were a group of distinct tribes that were scattered around Europe, but they spoke a similar language and shared a kindred culture, tradition, and religion.

Their spread throughout Europe was expansive; they originated in central Europe (the exact area is an issue of debate) but eventually branched out to the west of the continent, to countries such as Ireland, Britain, France, and Spain.

The Irish, the Gaels, the Gauls, the Britons, and the Galatians were all Celtic tribes. Variations of the Celtic language are still spoken in modern-day Ireland and Great Britain, so therefore many people in these countries still feel a strong association with the legacy of the Celts.

What religion were the Celts?

The Celts were polytheistic, therefore their traditions and legends were rich with tales of different Gods and Goddesses, however, unlike Greek and Roman cultures, their Gods didn’t have as clearly delineated functions.

Paganism was one of the larger religious divisions within the polytheistic Celts, and although there was a lot of variation within paganism, it was structurally similar across the different Celtic cultures.

What’s more, in Britain and Ireland, there were castes of “magico-religious specialists” known as the Druids, but not much is known about their practices.

Did the Celts practice human sacrifice?

The Roman Empire, who governed most of southern Europe at the same time as the Celts, referred to them as “Galli”, otherwise known as barbarians, as they were seen as a threat to the Mediterranean lifestyle.

They were eager to stress that the Celts were an animalistic culture that practiced human sacrifice – they even laid the foundations for the belief that Celtic priests used human entrails to “read” messages from the gods. 

It would be easy to understand this as mere propaganda, but archaeological evidence has uncovered prehistoric bodies that suggest that human sacrifice was actually a reality for the Celts.

In fact, the similarities between the bodies imply that these people all experienced a very similar form of execution, therefore possibly a form of ritualistic practice.

Although the Celts were head-hunters, especially of the skulls of their enemies, they usually practiced the threefold death in their rituals. This involved hitting the person across the head, before strangling them with a tightly wound cord, and then cutting their throat. Their body would then be placed face-down in a bog.

Ancient Celtic Symbols

As there are few written records of Celtic mythology, most of what can be surmised about their religious beliefs and practices are pieced together from the many icons and symbols that they used. Although these symbols are abundant, we’ll go through some of the more famous ones.

The Trinity Knot is a particularly famous Celtic symbol – also known as the Triquetra which means three-cornered, it is especially associated with Irish history. Although its origins are mostly unknown because of how old it is, it is thought to be associated with the solar and lunar cycles. It is also commonly associated with the mind, body, and soul.

Triskele are constructed from three joining spirals in different forms and are thought to represent the inner and outer worlds. They are also associated with themes of birth, death, and rebirth and the conjoining of the mental, physical, and spiritual self.

The Claddagh symbol is one of the Celt’s more famous icons, mostly due to its popular use as a ring and in entertainment media. The Claddagh is made up of hands that symbolize friendship, a crown that represents loyalty, and a heart, which stands for everlasting love.

The ancient Celts believed that trees were the entrance to the spiritual world, and also thought that they were the ancestors of man, hence, the Druids were known to hold their meetings under them. Therefore, their Tree of Life symbol appears in many different cultures and religions.

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The Phoenicians were a legendary maritime people, who are still recognisable from images of their great ships bedecked with horse’s heads in the name of their sea-god. Famous for their commercial and maritime success, they established independent city-states dotted along the coast of the Mediterranean sea. Yet, despite their influence on the Mediterranean culture, they had a lack of a singular language, land, or cultural heritage, making their identity a mystery to many.

The maritime lives of the ancient Phoenicians

Phoenician ships were a true sight to behold – they were ornately carved and decorated with paintings that were intended to intimidate their enemies. Eyes were even included to help the ships to “see” where they were going on their journeys, as well as to frighten their adversaries.

What’s more, the famous horse’s head, which was in honour of their god of the sea, Yamm, made them appear even more impressive and intimidating.

Because the Phoenicians were famous for their mastery of maritime navigation, their ships were constructed using cutting-edge techniques for that time. They predominately built two types; the gauloi and the Phoenician warships.

The gauloi was a trade ship, or “round ship” and had a large rectangular sail that helped it to turn and catch the wind, as well as an oar-like blade that enabled steering. It was large enough to carry a crew, as well as goods.

The warships were different from the gauloi in so far as that they were built for an attack – they were longer and narrower so that they could hold a maximum number of people. At the front of the warship, an area known as the forecastle was used to launch catapults during battle.

Also, a bronze tip, called a rostrum, on the bow was used to ram the ships of their adversaries. Their ships were so structurally advanced that they were still in use long after the downfall of the Phoenician empire.

The powerful city of Carthage

When the Phoenician’s system of power and wealth collapsed, they found themselves struggling to trade goods between their cities as they used to, and their workshops and markets floundered as a result. However, according to one ancient scholar, the Phoenicians were “the first to plough the sea”, so they used their maritime strength to explore and visit new lands, ones rich in goods and allies.

Eventually, they were able to form new towns and settlements, the most famous of which was to eventually become the powerful city of Carthage.

Located in modern-day Tunisia, the ancient city of Carthage is perhaps the most famous of the Phoenician settlements.

Early archaeological evidence of the occupation of Carthage dates back to approximately 760 B.C.; it started as a basic settlement, but within a century it had city walls, the beginnings of a harbour, and even a Tophet – a structure that may have been used for child sacrifice. In time, its large marketplace by the sea made it the clear choice for gathering magistrates making their decisions on the law and elections.

Originally known as Qart Hadasht (New City) in its Phoenician name, due to its location, Carthage dominated trade routes across the Mediterranean, as well as those between Africa and Europe. For this reason, it started to ruffle feathers in the Roman Empire; the two cities ultimately fought three Punic Wars, the third of which led to Carthage’s temporary ruination.  The two cities weren’t always hostile though, as they had a history of trade and even alliance when it came to the Pyrrhic War.

Carthage eventually fell at the hands of the Romans after a prolonged siege which culminated in the city being burned. However, it was not to be gone for long, as Julius Caesar built a new city on its site, which would eventually become the largest North African city to the west of Egypt. So, the legacy of Carthage continued to live on, and today the city of Tunis (with a population of more than two million) overlooks its ancient ruins.

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A deep-rooted fascination with the Egyptian pyramids started at a young age for many of us; in school, we absorbed how they were built by Pharaohs, contained mummies, and had depictions of the ancient Egyptian lifestyle drawn on their walls.

We poured over textbook images of the Sphinx, as well as ones of slaves being tied and whipped while transporting immense stone blocks.

This portrayal of how the pyramids were constructed is repeatedly compounded by film and media, but how true is it that they were built from forced labour? Perhaps it’s time to unshroud some of the mysteries of the Pyramids at Giza.

Why were the pyramids built?

Constructed approximately 4,500 years ago, the pyramids at Giza are considered to be one of the greatest architectural achievements of the ancient world.

Although more is being discovered about them with every passing year, scientists are still unsure about the specifics of how they were built.

However, we do know why; due to advanced engineering skills, as well as a healthy dose of mythology, the Pharaohs had the incredible structures constructed as a massive tomb to themselves, as they expected to become gods in the afterlife. They also filled each one with all the treasures and riches that they could possibly need in the next world.

The symbolism of the pyramids

The pyramids were symbols of power and the Egyptian’s strong religious beliefs. Their shapes are believed to represent both the primordial mound from which the ancient Egyptians thought that earth was created and the descending rays of the sun.

In fact, many of the pyramids are named in ways that pay homage to the sun – such as the Senusret Shines and the Bent Pyramid’s original name The Southern Shining Pyramid. For this reason, many of the pyramids were once faced with limestone that was polished to a highly reflective sheen so as to make them glow, even when observed from a distance.

Which is the most famous pyramid?

Pharaoh Khufu had the Great Pyramid built, and it is undoubtedly the most famous of the Egyptian pyramids. Of the Seven Wonders of the World, the Great Pyramid is the only one that remains. It is the largest pyramid in Egypt and is known by a number of different names, including the Pyramid of Khufu and the Pyramid of Cheops.

Construction took place in 2560 BC and is thought to have taken approximately 20 years – a frenetic process for a structure of that size and era. It consists of over two million blocks that weigh between two and fifteen tons and had to be transported from local quarries.

Pharaoh Khafre, Khufu’s son, built the second pyramid, whereas it might not have been as grand as the Great Pyramid, Khafre’s legacy also includes the Sphinx - the Pyramids at Giza’s imposing sentinel.

Arguably the most famous sculpture in the world, the limestone monument consists of the body of a lion and the head of a pharaoh.

The third pyramid was built by Pharaoh Menkaure, and although it is much smaller than the others, it has a considerably more advanced mortuary. Even though the Menkaure Pyramid is considered to be the “small” pyramid, it is only because the other structures are so mammoth. For this reason, the slaves that built them were widely pitied for their toiled efforts under the hot desert sun awaiting their inevitable death. Yet new evidence suggests that our sympathies were unfounded, as the pyramids may not have been built by slaves after all.

Who really built the pyramids?

In 1990, a horse stumbled over a brick structure mere yards away from the necropolis in the complex on which the pyramids stand. This structure turned out to be worker tombs, which flipped the belief that the pyramids were built by slaves on its head.

Not only were the tombs constructed in close proximity to the pyramids, indicating that the workers were regarded enough to be buried close to the Pharaohs, but the tombs were prepared for the afterlife, suggesting that the workers came through families that paid taxes. Even the Wadi al-Jarf papyrus tells us that the pyramids were built by well-paid workers.

What’s more, according to Zahi Hawass, Egyptian archaeologist and former minister of state for Antiquities Affairs, whereas slave labour was often used to create large buildings, they weren’t skilled enough to create structures as technical and creative as the pyramids.

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