Roopkund Lake, also known as Skeleton Lake, is a high altitude glacial lake located in the Himalayas of northern India. The area is uninhabited and found at an altitude of 5020 meters. The lake itself is only 3 meters deep but known for containing up to 800 human skeletons. Some appear to have perished in a massive hailstorm dating to the 9th century as fatal blows have been found on some of the heads indicating being hit by something round like a cricket ball. No weapons have been found and the absence of injuries elsewhere indicates large hail stones or ice balls fell from the sky.

In 1991, hikers discovered the mummified remains of a man who died 5300 years ago in the Alps with an arrow stuck through his shoulder. His genetics show great affinity to modern Sardinia and it is thought if you have ancestors stem from the region between Sardinia and the Alps, there is a chance you could be related to Ötzi. Found in the Ötztal Alps between Italy and Austria, he was given the nickname Ötzi and represents Europe's oldet known natural mummy.

For the people of Pompeii the world reached a horrific end in the Autumn of 79 AD. Touch here to see how. The only surviving eyewitness account of the event consists of two letters written by Pliny the Younger (who was 17 at the time of the eruption) to the Roman historian Tacitus some 25 years later. Observing the first volcanic activity from across the Bay of Naples 29 kilometers away, Pliny the Elder (his uncle) launched a rescue fleet immediately - while Pliny the Younger stayed behind. He wrote of a extraordinary dense cloud rising above mount Vesuvius. His words describe a pine-tree with spreading branches which was sometimes bright and sometimes dark and spotted - impregnated with earth and cinders. After three tremors the sea rolled back upon itself. Flashes appeared through dark clouds and ash fell like a blanket of snow.

If the Medici Family returned to their former glory today, they would look at the Forbes rich list and chuckle - their fortune in todays figures would make them multi-trillionaires - they were the kind of rich who would make todays billionaires look like they were saving for a rainy day. The Medici family, a towering influence in Renaissance Florence, emerged from modest beginnings to become one of the most powerful banking dynasties in Europe. Their astute patronage of the arts ignited the Renaissance, sponsoring titans like Michelangelo, Leonardo da Vinci, and Botticelli, whose works fundamentally transformed Western art. As masterful politicians, the Medicis produced four Popes and married into Europe's royal families, weaving a tapestry of influence that stretched beyond the borders of Florence. Their political acumen was matched by a complex network of espionage and strategic marriages, securing their place at the heart of European power dynamics. Yet, the Medici legacy is not just one of power and politics; it is deeply embedded in the cultural and scientific revolutions of their time, funding advancements that shaped the modern world. The dramatic rise and fall of the Medici family are a testament to their profound impact on history, embedding their legacy in the annals of time as patrons of the arts and architects of the future.

In the heart of Verona, Italy, the Seminario Vescovile necropolis reveals the ancient burial practices of the Cenomani Gauls, a Celtic-Gallic tribe who settled the Italian peninsula during the late Iron Age. The funerary area was on the eastern bank of the Adige just to the south of the hill of St. Pietro, between the river and the Via Postumia. This vast burial ground, dating from the third to the first centuries BC, showcases 161 graves that reflect a blend of simplicity and ceremonial significance, often incorporating animal remains alongside human ones, indicating a profound connection between the deceased and their animal companions. Intriguingly, a study led by the University of Bern has delved into these unique burials, shedding light on the cultural and symbolic roles of animals, particularly dogs and horses, that were rarely consumed but held significant status and emotional value.

An ancient cemetery was discovered in Hassleben Thuringia which remained the richest ancient grave found in Germany for almost a hundred years. Not only was the oldest written Germanic word ever discovered etched onto a comb, but hundreds of Roman coins, ceramic fragments and Roman-style brooches were also discovered. This is no accident as much of our knowledge regarding Thuringia and broader Germania comes from the Roman historian Tacitus. The Elbe Germanic tribes who moved into this region were allies of the Romans who were trading partners, a buffer to the neighbouring Chatti - sworn enemies of Rome, as well as specialised in metalworking of iron and precious metals.

Celtic warfare at the beginning of the La Tene period introduced elite warriors riding chariots wielding a new type of Celtic longsword. The chariots were typically two-wheeled and light and not used for a frontal charge - instead they would drive about in all directions to break the ranks of the enemy with the very dread of their horses and the noise of their wheels. As per Julius Caesar, these warriors would throw their javelins from chariots before abandoning them to fight on foot - and return to them in order to retreat or redeploy. Cavalry was primarily used for skirmishing and Celtic armies were mostly made of infantry wielding swords or javelins. Classical writers such as Strabo, Livy, Pausanias and Florus describe Celts as fighting like wild beasts with a frenzy.

In the Iron Age Iberian town of Ullastret the heads of defeated enemies would be prepared and publically displayed alongside seized weapons. This ritual custom reaffirmed the powers of the leaders. It was common in Celtic cultures that head trophies were hung from the backs of horses or displayed in front of houses of victorious warriors. Pine tree resin has been found with these remains showing signs of heating to a high temperature. This indicates an embalming process was used to preserve the heads as long as possible. It is in fact theorized that the embalming process would be repeated over time as resin could be poured over many times. Shown here is one of the heads discovered in Ullastret.

The Roman conquest of Britain began in 43 AD but resistance in the north was fierce. Roman General Quintus Petillius Cerialis led the 9th Legion into the north and founded Eboracum in 71 AD (which became York) Originally Eboracum was intended to be a military fortress aligned along the river Ouse measuring about 50 acres in size. This wooden camp was upgraded to stone in 108 AD and garrisoned by the 6th Legion. The famous Emperor Hadrian reportedly visited Eboracum in 122 AD in order to plan his great walled frontier, which would be named after him. Emperor Septimus Severus visited in 208 AD and made it his private base while campaigning against Scotland, and he became the first of three Roman Emperors who would die in Eboracum. In 237, the town became a colonia, the highest legal status any Roman city could attain as Eboracum was the largest town in the north and the capital of Britannia Inferior. This is exactly the time period from when these 7 gladiators hailed.

The mysterious Guanches arrived on the Canary Islands at least 3000 years ago and originated from the Berber region of North Africa. They brought goats, pigs, and dogs with them from the mainland and are thought to have largely relied off goat herding and grain crops. No metal has been found in Guanches settlements so all tools were made of wood, stone and bone. Jewlery was crafted from bone, clay beads and shells. Many people lived in caves or circular houses made of stone with thatched rooves. 9 kingdoms were formed on Tenerife and during times of war combat ensued using wooden javelins, maces, obsidian knives and shields from the dragon tree. In some areas people are believed to have worshipped the sun and the mother godess. In Tenerife during the summer solstice the Guanches would kill livestock and throw them into a fire as an offering to the gods.

Silver mining played a key role in the Swedish economy during the 16th-18th centuries, of which the Sala mine in east central Sweden was the most important. King Gustav Eriksson Vasa, shown here, called this mine Treasury of the Kingdom for the amount of silver it produced - which ultimately totaled about 450 tons of silver along with 36000 tons of lead. This silver was critical for the monetary system and ultimately helped King Gustav Vasa to secure his crown and help Sweden claim sovereignty independent of Denmark - as well as fuel the economy of the Kingdom of Sweden and later Swedish Empire.

In the middle of the 12th century after the Wendish Crusade, pagan lands in northern Germany and Poland were annexed by Poles, Danes and Germans. To the east of Pommerania lay the pagan Baltic and Finnic tribes of Livonia (modern day Baltic countries). In 1184, the first Catholic mission entered Livonia and found a few converts to Christianity. After Berthold of Hannover was killed in 1198, Pope Innocent III called for a crusade against these pagans. Riga was established as the center of Christian rule in the region to launch these campaigns. In 1202, the Livonian Brothers of the Sword was created as an order of warrior monks to league the Crusade.

Gustav Vasa I helped Sweden break free from the Kalmar Union and win its indepedence against Denmark and Norway. He became King of newly indpendent Sweden (which included Finland), established a new dynasty and led to a reformation of the church making Sweden Lutheran. He vastly strengthened the state and built a modern army which was the envy of the region. Sweden began its own expansion and conquered Estonia. In 1587 the heir to the Swedish throne Sigismund Vasa (shown in this painting) became the new ruler of the Polish Lithuanian Commonwealth in part due to his catholic Polish mother. After his father King John III died, Sigisumund promised to unite Sweden with Poland and Lithuania promising to respect Lutherans as the new King of Sweden - but in 1597 Swedish aristocrats led by Sigismund's uncle Duke Charles IX rebelled.

Harold Godwinson was the last crowned Anglo-Saxon king of England - and the first English monarch crowned in Westminster Abbey. His short reign 10 months began after the untimely death of his brother-in-law King Edward the Confessor. Harold had been a powerful earl and member of a prominent family with ties to Cnut the Great, the Viking King who united all of England under his rule. In early September Harald Hardrada, the King of Norway, landed an invasion fleet near York and defeated the English earls of Mercia and Northumbria assisted by Harold's brother Tostig. In response Harold force-marched his army from London in four days and surprised the invaders killing both Hardrada and Tostig.

In central Poland near the Vistula river an incredible cemetery was uncovered in Bodzia and excavated between 2007-2009. More than 58 graves, weapons and riches were discovered with artifacts mostly of foreign origin. This chamber burial site was typical for the Viking Age and it is surmised this cemetery was part of a trade settlement connecting the Baltic Sea to the Byzantine Empire. The graves appear to have been surrounded by wooden palisades. Grave VK156 was found with a battle-knife, tools and an iron knife. His son VK153 meanwhile was buried with a battle axe. The richest grave however is shown here which contained a man and a woman who both died approximately the same time around 1015-1020 AD. The man on the left was buried with numerous items including an exquisite Viking sword.

Mieszko I was the bold founder of the Piast dynasty - a mighty European dynasty which ruled for 500 years. Mieszko was a shrewd warlord who united warring Polish tribes under his iron rule in the 10th century. By converting to Christianity in 966, he not only brought Poland into the heart of medieval Europe but also gained powerful allies among kings and popes. His legacy was carried on by his descendants, who battled enemies and each other to expand and protect the young kingdom. Over generations, the Piast line weathered invasions, betrayals, and shifting thrones—each duke more determined than the last. By the time Władysław I Herman rose to power in the 11th century, the dynasty had become a true force in Central Europe, balancing fragile peace with constant intrigue. Herman's sons Zbigniew and Bolesławw fought a bitter power struggle, which ended when Zbigniew was exiled in 1107 AD.

Ancient Macedonia was a land of powerful monarchs, famed for forging one of the most formidable empires of the ancient world. Kings like Philip II and Alexander the Great turned this once-peripheral kingdom into the master of Greece and conqueror of Persia. The Macedonian rulers prided themselves on their divine ancestry, claiming descent from Heracles and Zeus. Their reign was marked by dazzling military victories and equally magnificent displays of wealth and power. Nowhere is this grandeur more visible than in their burial traditions, where even in death, the kings proclaimed their godlike status.

In the riverbed of Cornaux/Les Sauges in Switzerland, a mystifying array of bones, skulls, and wooden beams relics from a Celtic bridge dated back approximately 2100 years has prompted a fresh investigation by a diverse research team. This team aimed to discern whether the discovery of about 20 skeletons from the Celtic period, found amidst the ruins, was the result of a tragic accident like a bridge collapse during a sudden flood, or a more sinister human involvement. The Celts, a prominent force in Europe during the Iron Age, had their culture pervade from Anatolia to Ireland, reaching its zenith in Central Europe during what archaeologists term the Hallstadt and La Tene periods, starting around 800 BC. Celts were not averse to employing violence and human sacrifice within their rituals.

Sverris Saga, one the King's Sagas of Norway, detailing Sverre Sigurdsson's ascent to the Norwegian throne - a tale of remarkable ambition and strategic prowess. Originally educated as a priest in the Faroe Islands, Sverre's life took a dramatic turn when he learned of his royal heritage as the son of King Sigurd Munn, legitimizing his claim to the throne. He journeyed to Norway and quickly assumed leadership of the Birkebeinar, a faction supporting his claim against the reigning King Magnus Erlingsson. Sverre's claim was bolstered by his charismatic leadership and military acumen, which he demonstrated in numerous battles against Magnus and his supporters, the formidable Baglar faction. His persistent efforts culminated in the decisive Battle of Fimreite in 1184, where Magnus fell, and Sverre emerged victorious, securing his place as king. Despite ongoing conflicts, including significant opposition from the church, Sverre maintained his reign until his death in 1202, leaving a legacy of tenacity and resilience.

The Neolithic site of Schletz in Lower Austria is an archaeological treasure trove, revealing an advanced fortified settlement that paints a vivid picture. This ancient village dates from over 7000 years ago and consisted of a large wooden pallisade almost 50m in diameter which was protected by a series of three ditches up to 3m deep and 5m wide. However things there ended in a violent massacre with hundreds of locals suffering violent deaths. This analysis was bolstered by a notable demographic anomaly: a marked scarcity of young females and a surplus of male remains, hinting at a possibly targeted conflict or raid around 5000 BC, leaving the settlement abruptly abandoned thereafter.

The House of Aba, an early royal dynasty, played a pivotal role in medieval Hungarian history, originating in the 10th century. This noble family produced several Hungarian kings, including Samuel Aba, who reigned from 1041 to 1044, amid times of great turmoil and change. The Abas were known for their fierce independence and significant influence over the northeastern regions of Hungary, wielding power that often rivalled the monarchy itself. Throughout the centuries, they were integral in shaping the political landscape of Hungary, engaging in alliances, battles, and marriages to secure their standing. Their legacy includes numerous fortresses and estates, which stand as testaments to their once-mighty presence. Despite their eventual decline, the House of Aba remains a symbol of the medieval aristocracys impact on Hungarian history.

In the fertile loess landscape northwest of Stuttgart, the Late Hallstatt burial mound of Hochdorf was unearthed, revealing a 60-meter-wide mound with a once majestic height of about 6 meters, now eroded due to centuries of agricultural activity. Excavated between 1977 and 1979, this site uncovered a central burial shaft, 11 meters square and 2.5 meters deep, leading to a well-constructed timber and stone chamber housing an elite mans final resting place. The chamber contained a bronze sofa, uniquely crafted and ornately decorated, where the remains of a muscular man, aged around 50, were found in a supine position. The man was no ordinary man - but a powerful ruler - between 1.8m and 1.84 meters tall making him the tallest person ever found in southern Germany from ancient times. His attire included gold-decorated shoes, a gold-sheet covered bronze belt, and a dagger sheathed in a similarly adorned scabbard, highlighting his high social status.

Colonial Jamestown, Virginia in the 1600s was a bustling hub of ambition and survival, marked by the gritty determination of its settlers. Nestled on the banks of the James River, this nascent colony was the first permanent English settlement in America, teeming with the promise of new opportunities and the harsh realities of colonial life. The streets of Jamestown were alive with a diverse mix of English settlers, African slaves, and Powhatan Indians, each playing a pivotal role in the crafting of a new society. Amidst the backdrop of thatched-roof cottages and tobacco fields, intrigue and adventure were never far, as residents navigated political strife, uneasy alliances, and the wild, untamed landscape of the New World.

Nestled in the heart of Northumberland, Castle Chillingham stands as a remarkable relic of medieval times, radiating a history as dramatic as its architecture - it is also known as Britain's most haunted Castle. Originally built as a monastery in the 12th century, it was fortified over the years to defend against invading Scots, thus becoming a fully-fledged castle by the 14th century. The castle has witnessed numerous historical events, from the bloody Border Wars to the intrigues of the English nobility. It served not only as a fortress but also as a royal retreat for figures such as King Edward I. Each stone and turret of Chillingham tells a story, encapsulating centuries of tumultuous history and the echoes of those who once roamed its halls.

Located just 650 meters southeast of the Celtic power center on the Hohenasperg, the Asperg-Grafenbühl burial mound has endured centuries of transformation, from viticulture in the 16th century to modern urban development, leaving it heavily altered and nearly submerged under the town of Asperg. Despite its present state, the mounds historical depth is profound, with a diameter of 40 meters and a reconstructed height of about 4 meters. The treasures found within though partially looted include a gold plated belt hook, two gold covered bronze fibulae, and luxurious textiles interwoven with gold lame, speaking volumes of the high status of the deceased.

The political relationship between France and Spain was marked by intense rivalry and frequent conflicts, largely driven by competing imperial ambitions across Europe. This tension was accentuated by the Thirty Years War, where the two powers found themselves on opposing sides, further straining diplomatic and military relations. Spanish King Philip IV (shown here) immensely strained Spanish military and financial resources due to the Thirty Years War, compelling him to levy heavy taxes across his territories, including Catalonia. To enforce these taxes and maintain order, Philip stationed large numbers of troops within Catalan towns, exacerbating tensions with the local populace. The catalytic moment occurred when Philip attempted to use Catalan forces for an offensive against France, leading to widespread resentment and fear of being drawn deeper into European conflicts.

St. Helena, a small island located 1,000 miles (1610 kilometers) off the coast of southwest Africa, played a crucial role in Britain's mission to abolish the slave trade. Positioned strategically in the heart of the Middle Passage - the notorious second leg of the triangular trade route - this tiny island became a key outpost. Europeans used this route to transport goods to Africa, exchange them for enslaved people, and then subject these individuals to perilous and often deadly voyages across the Atlantic to the West Indies and Brazil. The slave trade brought immense wealth to European nations, with Britain leading as the world's largest slave-trading nation. Out of the 3.1 million Africans forcibly taken by the British between 1562 and 1807, 2.7 million survived the Middle Passage. These enslaved people were instrumental in building and sustaining economies in Britain and its overseas colonies.

Stephen Báthory, one of the most formidable and respected rulers of the 16th century, ascended to the throne as the Prince of Transylvania and later as the King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania. A brilliant military strategist and tactician, Báthory is celebrated for revitalizing and reorganizing the Polish army, introducing new defense tactics and forming the famed Hussar cavalry. His reign marked a period of extensive military campaigns against the Ottoman Empire, where he successfully thwarted Ottoman advances, securing significant victories that bolstered the defense of Eastern Europe. Under his leadership, the Siege of Danzig was lifted, and his subsequent campaigns into Russia expanded Poland-Lithuania's influence, forging a powerful Eastern European coalition. Stephen Báthory's legacy is not just of a warrior king but also as a patron of the arts and education, establishing the Jesuit College at Vilnius and contributing to a flourishing Renaissance culture within his realms.

Stonehenge was built in Neolithic times (circa 2300 BC) and drew ailing pilgrims from around Europe for what they believed to be its healing properties, according to recent research. Pilgrims would wear amulets crafted using pieces of the rocks at the monument. One dig uncovered masses of fragments carved out of the bluestones which were used to create amulets. Stonehenge could be compared to Lourdes in France today. Many of the ancient skeletons found nearby seem to show signs of serious disease or injury and many show signs of coming from far away. The outer stones are what most people associate with the monument. There is also a competing theory that the temple was a meeting point between the land of the living and the dead. In either case, this massive monument would attract visitors from far and wide as archaeogenetics discovers.

Halikarnassos was an ancient Dorian Greek city in Anatolia - today known as the coastal city of Bodrum in Turkey. In this city stood one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World - The Mausoleum of Halikarnassos. Unlike most other Greek city states, Halikarnassos retained a monarchy. The city was a Dorian colony - founded by one of the four main ethnic groups of Classical Greece. This is evidenced by the coins depicting the head of Medusa, Athena or Poseidon which suggests the mother cities were Troezen and Argos in the Peleponnese. King Mausoleus became ruler of the larger state of Caria and moved its capital to Halikarnassos. He began many construction works including a massive foritified palace on one side of the harbor with clear views out to sea and inland to the hills.

In December 1770 Ludwig van Beethoven was born in Bonn at Bonngasse 20 and baptized with the name of his famous grandfather - a successful musician from Flemish Belgium - and he was given this name in hopes to surpass his famous ancestor. Recognizing he had a prodigy his hands, Ludwigs father Johan van Beethoven tried to present his talented son at his first show at the age of 7. His father pushed him hard and would wake him in the middle of the night to practice his music. By the age of 16 Beethoven was employed as court organist in Bonn by the brother of Emperor Josef of Vienna. The same year he visited Vienna, met Mozart and returned home shortly before his mother died. His father become an alcoholic and forced to retire from his job in service of the Court. Ludwig was forced into adulthood, making real money and had to take care of his two younger brothers. In 1792 at the age of 21 Beethoven arrives in Vienna - the cultural capital - a city overflowing with music in hopes to expand his future. Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart had died just the year before and the great composer Haydn was ageing - destiny had prepared a place for Beethoven. Music is everywhere - and in less than a year he creates a big name for himself. Beethoven catches the attention of the famous composer Haydn who is amazed at the young talent who arrived from Bonn and begins studying with him.

Viminacium, once the capital of the Roman province of Moesia Superior and one of the larger cities in the Roman Empire - it is a treasure trove of archaeological significance, offering a vivid glimpse into the Roman Empires grandeur. The site is renowned for its well-preserved urban structures, including luxurious villas, an amphitheater, and intricate thermal baths, showcasing advanced Roman architecture and engineering. Notably, the extensive necropolis reveals diverse burial practices and houses mausoleums, such as the purported resting place of Roman Emperor Hostilian. Excavations have unearthed a wealth of artifacts, including exquisite frescoes, sculptures, and a vast array of coins and jewelry, reflecting the citys prosperity and cultural vibrancy. Viminaciums strategic location at the confluence of the Mlava and Danube rivers highlights its historical importance as a military stronghold and a bustling center of trade and communication.

It was the year 1347 - the Genoan city of Caffa on the Crimean coast was under siege by the Khan of the Golden Horde supported by Tartars. Suddenly the besiegers began to die mysteriously on mass - an affliction arrived from the East - a bacteria called Yersinia Pestis also known as the Plague. Incredibly deadly and contagious, it can invade the human immune system itself. Three main variants of the disease existed - the Bubonic form was the least lethal where the victim would show flu like symptoms with a bloody cough - about 60% would die as a result. The infected lymph nodes would grow and could disfigure the victim. The Pneumonic variant was when the lungs would be infected and transmission would occur in the air. Life expectancy was about 3 days and over 90% would die. The third most lethal variant was when the bloodstream was directly infected - with a 100% mortality rate and death within 14 hours of infection. People would kiss their healthy loved ones good night and find them dead in the morning. The plague also had the perfect method for expansion due to the species of rats and fleas which carried it.

The Ancient city of Megiddo, also known today as Tel Megiddo in modern Israel, was first known in the Akkadian language used in Assyria as Magiddu. Described in the Book of Revelation as the site of the apocalyptic battle of Armageddon (Revelation 16:16), Megiddo was one of the strongest and most important Canaanite cities. Today experts know the ancient Canaanites were divided into independent city states, such as Megiddo, Hazor, and Acre. Most of the texts about them come from outsiders or later sources. The Canaanite people were also the forebearers of later peoples of the Levant region. Megiddo was an important Canaanite city state during the Bronze Age, approximately 3500 BC to 1200 BC DNA analysis reveals that the city population included migrants from the distant Caucasus Mountains. The ruins today include the remains of palaces, temples, gates and sophisticated water system with origins going back as far as 7000 BC. Megiddo was important in the ancient world - it guarded the western branch of a narrow pass on the most important trade route of the ancient Fertile Crescent, linking Egypt with Mesopotamia and Asia Minor (Anatolia) and known today as Via Maris.

The Swedish Flagship Stora Kronan (Great Crown in English) was the mightiest warship ever built by the Swedish Empire and a floating palace - no expense was spared in building her - the 3rd largest ship ever built at the time. She had been designed to scare of the Danes and Dutch as well as impress - built by the top English ship builder Francis Sheldon. As a state of the art Ship of the Line, she had 3 gundecks designed for 126 cannons - mostly large 24 pounders and above, making her one of the deadliest and heaviest armed ships ever made. With fresh memories of its predecessor, the ill-fated infamous warship Vasa which sunk just 50 years earlier on its maiden voyage, the Stora Kronan was constructed with a deep hull to sail and when properly ballasted not be top-heavy in open sea. She was about twice as large as the Vasa shown here in this video with twice as many cannons - but in terms of luxury was built to the highest standard. The Vasa is the worlds only preserved 17th century ship - which can be visited today in Stockholm.

Pylos, located in southwest Greece was an important center of Ancient Greece - described in Homers Odyssey and Iliad as Nestors kingdom of sandy Pylos. High up on the hills above with a commanding view of the Mediterranean Sea an ancient site was discovered - the Palace of Nestor. Not only representing the best preserved Mycenaean Greek palace ever discovered, the primary structure consisted of a two-storey building with store rooms, workshops, baths, light wells, reception rooms and a working sewage system. Touch here to see the a 3-D rendering of the extraordinary palace - built by King Nestor, son of Neleus, who was an Argonaut portrayed in Homeric epics. He had led Pylos to the Trojan War with 90 ships and was highly respected by the Achaeans who had ultimately defeated the Trojans. Keep in mind all of these events pre-dated classical Greece by several hundred years.

In 1975 a mysterious mummified body was uncovered in the Barfuesser Church in Basel Switzerland. Basel in the 16th and 17th centuries was a wealthy trading city and its port on the Rhine was a key hub for moving goods across Europe. The mummy appeared to be a well fed and wealthy woman wearing good quality clothes buried right in front of the altar. There was no gravestone to be found but carbon dating showed the coffin originated from the 16th century. Furthermore the body was in an amazing state of preservation due to being filled with mercury, a highly toxic substance.

In 1409, King Sigismund of Hungary bestowed Hunyad castle to a man named Voyk of Wallachia who had served as a Knight in the royal court. His eldest son Janos (adopting the family name Hunyadi) quickly became a renowned military leader trained in Hussite and Renaissance fighting techniques winning many battles and leading Crusades against the Ottomans. In 1453, the Ottoman Sultan Mehmed II conquered Constantinople and dispatched 150,000 soldiers to invade Europe. Against all odds, Janos leading an army of mercenaries and poorly equipped peasants defeated the Turks in 1456. The Ottoman invasion of Hungary was set back for 70 years and Hunyadi had saved the day - unfortunately he died from a plague epidemic. His younger son Matthias I (Matthias Corvinus - aka the Raven King) became the famous King of Hungary in 1458 at the age of just 14. The monument shown here depicts Matthias.

Step into the shadowy corridors of time, and you will encounter one of Europes most intriguing noble lineages: the House of Basarab. With connections to both legendary figures and critical moments in history, this family has left an indelible mark on the regions tapestry. Buckle up as we delve into the captivating origins and tales surrounding this ancient Romanian bloodline. The beginnings of the House of Basarab are shrouded in a mix of legend and reality. the most accepted theory traces the familys roots back to Basarab I, the founder of Wallachia. In the treacherous mountain passes of Posada, the underdog Wallachian forces, led by the cunning Basarab I, ambushed and outwitted the mighty Hungarian army of Charles I - as shown here. This stunning upset in 1330 not only cemented Wallachias independence but also heralded the rise of the House of Basarab to legendary status in European history.

Peder Pedersen Winstrup was a prominent Bishop of the Lutheran church, royal Chaplain to King Christian IV of Denmark, one of the most important figures in 17th Century Scandinavian history - but he also represents one of the best preserved bodies from the 17th century in Europe. Born in Copenhagen as part of the Denmark-Norway Empire in 1605, he was appointed royal chaplain for Christian IV - the King of Norway and Denmark and made Bishop of Lund in 1638. He is also known as the founding father of Lund University having personally pushed for the new university be founded in Lund, Scania.

Duntrune Castle was built in the 13th century by the MacDougall clan along with several other castles and strongholds in the area - i is thought to be the oldest continuously occupied castle in mainland Scotland. It is located on the north side of Loch Crinan with access to the sea. At some point Clan Campbell took ownership of the castle - however 400 years ago the MacDonalds led by Sir Alistar MacDonald (known as the dreaded Colkitto as well as 6 feet 6 inches tall) arrived at Duntrune Castle and defeated their sworn enemy the Campbells. Colkitto left a few defenders including his favorite piper behind and proceed to board his galley to sail away. The Campbells mounted a counterattack and killed all his men except the piper who was forced to play for the amusement of his captors.

Castle Menzies is the ancestral seat of Clan Menzies and the Menzies Baronets, located near Aberfeldy in the Highlands of Perthshire Scotland. The castle had been the seat of the chiefs of the clan for over 500 years and has a rich history. Bonne Prince Charlie, the Stuart pretender to the throne, rested here on his was to the battle of Colloden in 1746. Duleep Singh, the last maharajah of the Sikh Empire, resided in the castle between 1855 and 1858 following his exile from the Punjab. A fire broke out in 1878 which damaged the castle and affected the health of Lady Menzies who died a month later. In 1903 Sir Neil Menzies, 8th Baronet, inherited the estate but died without heirs in 1910. The house was subsequently auctioned. In 1957 the Menzies Clan Society restored the castle. Note: the samples in this spotlight all share the Menzies haplogroup.

The Dunbar Clan (with the same haplogroup as these samples!) had played a prominent role in Scottish history and had its ancestral seat in Dunbar Castle, one of the strongest fortresses in Scotland overlooking the harbor town of Dunbar in East Lothian. This all ended when James I of Scotland wanted the Dunbar estates for himself and imprisoned the last Earl of Dunbar in the process. James was struggling for power and attempted to launch pre-emptive attacks on his own nobles in 1425 - this ended badly with his own assasination. Baldoon Castle was a later gift from King James V to Archibald Dunbar amnd located about 1.5 miles southwest of Wigtown, Dumfries and Galloway. The castle became the property of the Dunbars of Westfield for nearly 3 centuries between 1530 and 1800. Little remains of the castle today - part of the south wall stands with three walls on its north face, as well as the remains of an entrance gateway about 50 meters to the north. The gateway dates to the 1600s and is of Renaissance style.

Hedeby was founded in 770 AD as an important Viking Age stronghold in Southern Jutland. Second to Birka in Sweden, it was the most important Viking trade center in Europe. Its old Norse name Heidabyr means heath settlement. It began as a series of jetties and workshops constructed by Danish Vikings - the first written records date from 804 AD. Hedeby was located at the crossroads of Saxon, Slavic and Frisian territories at the end of the Schlei River in a series of bays connecting to the Baltic Sea. The city quickly attained great wealth as a mercantile settlement with extensive trading ties to western Europe, Scandinavia, Slavic lands, the Byzantine east as well as the Arab World. Trade was flowing but these were dangerous times.

Sicily was located at the focal point of many trade routes of the known world. Three ancient tribes had inhabited the island - the Elimi, Sicani and Siculi. However the island was strategically located with fertile lands and coastline which brought settlers from Phoenicia and Ancient Greece. As the Phoenician homeland of Tyre collapsed, their once city-state turned empire Carthage set its eyes on conquering nearby Sicily. Carthage was indeed mighty and rich boasting the most powerful navy found anywhere. With their accumulated wealth they could pay for the best troops from their spheres of influence which included fierce Iberian warriors, Gauls, Sardinians, Nubian elephants and North African cavalry. Carthage signed a treaty with fledgling state of Rome, who was then battling the Etruscans to formalize plans for division of influence, and in 480 BC dispatched King Hamilcar I with the largest army yet assembled (nearly 300,000 soldiers and 5,000 horsemen) to crush several Greek city-states in Sicily as a broader plan to seize the island. The Greek colonies in Sicily meanwhile had become powerful city states with several tyrant kings as their rulers. Two in particular, Gelon and Theron had forged an alliance to claim much of the Sicilian coastline. Against the vast Carthaginian juggernaut headed their way, the Sicilian Greeks were desperate for help - they asked the Greek mainland for help but simultaneously, as fate had it, the mighty Persian Empire led by Xerxes were on their own campaign to crush the Greek homeland. The help that did arrive, as it turned out, were not Greek at all but paid mercenaries from Central and Baltic Europe. Altogether the Greeks managed to amass only 50,000 soldiers and several thousand cavalry - they were vastly outnumbered.

Carthage began as a small Phoenician colony, founded by settlers from Tyre around 814 BC. The name Qart-hadast meaning New City reflected its role as a fresh outpost in the great Phoenician trade network. Positioned on a fertile coast in modern Tunisia, it quickly grew into a bustling hub of merchants, sailors, and craftsmen. Governed by powerful merchant families, Carthage prospered through trade in metals, textiles, and exotic goods. Religion bound the city to its eastern roots, with Baal Hammon and Tanit at the heart of worship, though local African traditions soon merged in. From its very foundation, Carthage was destined to be more than just a colony - it was a city built to rule the seas.

Lying just meters under the waves and 20 meters from the coastline emerged an over 1600 year old basilica forgotten just 100 km from Istanbul. Located in what was an ancient Greek city called Nicaea, the early church was clearly of historical significance. Engraved on the ruins was the name St. Neophytos - it was determined this basilica had indeed been built in his honor. Who was Saint Neophytos? He was a Roman citizen born of Christian parents who went to Nicaea in 303 AD and boldly denounced the pagan faith - only to be killed by no less than 16 Roman soldiers. It turns this church was built after 325 AD exactly on the spot where Neophytos had been killed. An earthquake in 740 AD sunk the basilica under the sea where it was forgotten until being rediscovered in 2014. The significance of this basilica cannot be underestimated!

Ladislaus was the second son of future King Bela I of Hungary and his wife Richeza who was daughter of King Mieszko II of Poland. He was born and raised in exile in Poland along with his two brothers as his father began a rebellion to seize the crown of Hungary in 1060. In 1063 Bela died and his nephew Solomon returned from the Holy Roman Empire with support from German troops to take back the crown. Ladislaus and his two brothers Geza and Lamport signed a treaty with Solomon to keep control of their fathers duchy in order to avoid a civil war leaving Solomon as King. This did not last for long as the King hoped to seize more lands.

Kerak castle is located in Jordan and one of the largest castles of the Levant. Due to its ideal location east of the Dead Sea, it controlled trade routes from Damascus to Egypt and Mecca. Representing the latest in Crusader castle technology, Kerak castle had sloping walls and an immense entry system of winding tunnels which could stop any siege. Raynald of Chatillon - the Prince of Antioch and Lord of Oultrejordain - gained possession of Kerak castle through marriage and used it as a launching point to harass trade camel trains and even threaten Mecca itself. Raynald is the infamous father of Anna of Antioch - the focus of our spotlight. As portrayed in the film Kingdom of Heaven, Raynald was Known as the truce breaker - he would frequently attack caravans between Egypt and Syria becoming one of the wealthiest barons of the realm. Raynald was the only Christian leader who pursued an offensive policy against Saladin through vicious acts of plunder.

Bela III is one of the most important monarchs of medieval Hungary and Dalmatia. His rule represented the peak of the Arpadian Dynasty which started when Prince Arpad led the Magyar tribes into the Carpathian Basin as conquerors a few hundred years earlier. He was the second son of King Geza II and following the peace treaty setup between his elder brother King Stephen III and the Byzantine Emperor Manuel I Komnenos, Bela moved to Constantinople in 1163. Emperor Manuel dreamed about making Hungary a vassal state of Byzantium and recreating the glory of Ancient Rome. Instead of using force his plan was to marry prince Bela to his daughter Maria and cleverly declaring him his successor.

The Johnson brothers named James, Baker, Roger and Thomas bought land at the foot of the Catoctin Ridge in Maryland and built an iron furnace. Discoveries of large iron ore deposits gave rise to a thriving iron smelting industry. By 1776 the Catoctin furnace was churning out tools and household items. Within a few years this included iron munitions for the Continental Army including large quantities of cannonballs. Skilled workers operated the furnace and historical evidence shows African slaves were chosen with backgrounds in iron manufacturing - making up approximately half of the workforce.

Ostia was a town located on the mouth of the Tiber river approximately 30 km from Rome - in fact the name derives from the latin word Ostium meanign mouth. Originally founded in 620 BC, the city became the key naval base for Rome complete with a fortress. By 267 BC it became the seat of the quaestor Ostiensis who was responsible for watching over the Roman fleet. The city expanded and changed into a commerical harbor. Grain would arrive here from Siciliy and Sardinia as well as Tunisia. Wine from France, olive oil from Spain and marble from Greece and Turkey would arrive here before being towed by boat or carried by Oxen to Rome.

Hidden beneath the Klosterneuburg Monastery in Austria lies an Ancient Roman fortress located along the famous Limes line. The exact Roman name for the fortress is believed to be Arrianis and is located very close to modern day Vienna. Early on, the fort served as a cohort camp for auxilliary troops (auxilla) and was the base of a cavalry unit. Their job was to monitor a Danube crossing and protect the Limes road from Vindobona to Lauriacum. The auxillia provided almost all of the Roman army cavalry and at its peak represented 60 percent of their overall land forces. The Limes (or limites in Latin) is the name for the fortified border between the Roman Empire and barbarian lands. the most famous section was the Limes Germanicus bordering Germanic and Rhaetian tribes.

Celtic hillforts were much more than simply fortifications. Referred to oppidae by the Romans,they were fortified town centers which would form the center of a Celtic community. Unlike a castle they had no keep - but they could have quite elaborate defensive structures. The walled interior space could fit upwards of 50 football pitches. Shown in this video is the hillfort of Cadbury Castle located in Somerset. This particular site is exciting as it is associated with King Arthurs legendary court at Camelot. The hillfort had been constructed originally in the Bronze Age and extended use throughout the Iron Age and past the Roman Era until around 580 AD.

Blarney Castle is a medieval stronghold located in Blarney near Cork Ireland. The stone keep was built by the MacCarthy of Muskerry dynasty and dates from 1446. The famous Blarney stone is also found among the battlements. The castle was besieged during the Irish Conferate Wars and seized in 1646 by Parliamentarian forces. However it was returned to Donough MacCarty who became 1st Earl of Clancarty. The castle was also captured and confiscated by the Williamites in the 1690s who supported King William as the successor to James II. Afterwards the castle was sold and changed hands several times before being bought by the governor of Cork in the 18th century. Today the castle is open to visitors and is surrounded by extensive gardens with rock formations including the Wishing Steps, Druids Circle and Witchs Cave. There is also a poison garden with poisonous plants including wolfsbane, mandrake, ricin, opium and cannabis.

Saint Patrick was born Maewyn Succat in Roman Britain, specifically Wales, just across the sea from Ireland around 400 AD and the son of a fairly well off family - his father was a church deacon. 16 year old Patrick was captured by slave traders and sent to Ireland as a slave to tend sheep - likely in County Mayo. He prayed daily to return home and one day he heard a voice telling him it was time to head back and a ship would be waiting. After fleeing his captors by foot and walking 200 miles he reached the coast where indeed a ship was about to leave. The pagan sailors initially refused to assist him but changed their minds after he prayed for a safe return. Patrick escaped to Britain after 6 long years in captivity and was reunited with his parents.

The Centocelle Necropolis is associated with the large imperial property Ad Duas Lauros - a sprawling Roman imperial villa in which Helena, the mother of Emperor Constantine I had lived. The Mausoleum of Helena, part of the Ad Duas Lauros complex, was originally designed by Constantine I to be his own personal tomb - but later became the tomb of his mother. The building is on a circular plan with two cylinders and an original height of 25.42 meters. The lower cylinder has an octagonal shape with eight arcaded windows designed to allow in light. After the death of Helena, the Ad Duas Lauros was assigned to the Roman popes. The Sarcophagus of Helena was moved to the Lateran (currently in the Vatican) in the 11th century where it can be seen today.

The workshop of a tanner was key to life in Rome as this is where animal hides were prepared to produce leather. An amazing ornamented table was discovered in the tannery garden of Pompeii and shown here. It depicts a skull with a butterfly symbolising the fluttering of the disembodied soul and the flight of time. On the right side of a scale/level is a beggars tattered robe and on the left is a mantle of royal purple. The plumb line on the level hangs straight down showing that fate sooner or later equalises the lots of all mankind. Nearby in the tannery is etched the phrase: Mors Orem villeins, Vivite, alt, venio. Death plucks my ear and says Live for I come.

The area around Bodø in Norway is mentioned in the Saga of King Olav Tryggvason - the great grandson of King Harald I Fairhair. In 991 he joined raids on England - that year English King Aethelred II the Unready sued for peace agreeing to pay large sums of tribute. Olav invaded again in 994 with Danish King Sweyn I Forkbeard. Already having become a Christian, Olav was confirmed in 994 in Hampshire with Aethelred becoming his godfather. The next year the Norwegian King Haakon the Great died and Olav became the new king. He forcefully began imposing Christianity on his realm having success in Shteland, Faroe, the Orkney Islands, Iceland and Greenland. However Norway itself was a challenge and resisted.

Julius Caesar provided vivid accounts of chariot use by the Britons who opposed his attempted landing in 55 BC (now evidenced to be at Pegwell Bay in Kent). He states how the barbarians sent forward almost 4000 charioteers to block his men as they tried to land - they would drive about in all directions and throw their weapons breaking the ranks of their enemy. Once the chariots worked their way into the enemy, the Celtic warriors would leap from their chariots and engage on foot.

Edward the Confessor, son of Aethelred the Unready - infamous for ordering the brutal St. Brices Day massacre in Oxford and across England - died in January 1066, leaving the kingdom without a clear heir. With the throne vacant and danger looming, the English nobles swiftly chose Harold Godwinson, a powerful ally of Edward and the greatest military leader of the realm, to take the crown. Yet far to the north, the legendary Viking king Harald Hardrada claimed England was rightfully his and launched a massive invasion to seize it. Harold raced his army hundreds of kilometers in an astonishing forced march, determined to stop Hardrada before he could entrench himself. At Stamford Bridge, Harold unleashed a devastating surprise attack against the unprepared Viking army. According to saga tradition, a massive Viking warrior held the bridge single-handedly cutting down dozens of English soldiers before being stabbed from below. The seemingly invincible Hardrada was defeated in a storm of heroic, furious combat. England celebrated a stunning victory - King Harold emerged battered and exhausted unaware of another invasion already underway.

Viking Age Sweden around 1000 AD - Sweden stood at a crossroads where raiders, traders, and farmers were reshaping power from chieftain networks into early kingdoms. King Olof Skötkonung - often named Swedens first firmly Christian ruler - embodied the turn toward baptism, coinage, and continental alliances. The coin here shows King Olof and is dated 995 AD. Missionaries and merchants followed the same sea lanes and land routes, carrying prayers, silver, and new ideas into longhouse communities. Cremation-era traditions yielded to churchyards and east-west graves, while law, language, and ritual slowly learned to share a roof. It is in this turbulent, creative moment that local families in the Swedish heartlands began to anchor memory with Christian words and royal time.

The 3rd century was the age when Rome nearly bled itself to death. Between 235 and 284 AD, the empire spiraled into chaos: foreign invasions surged across the Rhine and Danube, plagues thinned the population, and the throne became a revolving door. Generals rose and fell with dizzying speed, propped up by their soldiers one week and murdered the next. For a time, Rome wasn’t even a single empire - Gaul, Britain, and Spain broke away into the Gallic Empire, while the East followed Queen Zenobia of Palmyra. The empire seemed destined to fracture for good.

Napoleon forged the Grande Armée as the ultimate weapon of his empire, drawing men from every corner of Europe. By 1812, it numbered more than half a million soldiers, making it the largest army Europe had ever seen. Roughly half were French, while the other half were foreign allies and conscripts. Poles formed one of the largest contingents, eager to restore their nation under Napoleon’s promise. Germans from the Confederation of the Rhine, Italians from Napoleons kingdoms, Swiss, Bavarians, Dutch and even Spaniards filled the ranks. The Grande Armée was not just French - it was a multinational force marching together under the eagle of Napoleon.

Faras was a major city located in Lower Nubia along the Nile River near the border of modern Egypt and Sudan. Following the collapse of the Kingdom of Kush, the nomadic Noba people settled into the area - this is the origin of the term Nubia. In 543 AD, the city adopted Christianity after encountering a mission dispatched by Byzantine Empress Theodora. The cathedral shown here was founded by bishop Aetious in 620 AD. The paintings found therein are the best surviving examples of Christian Nubian art, as well as depict portraits of monarchs and bishops providing us a treasure trove of historical evidence regarding this period of Medieval Nubia. The inscriptions record the names and dates of the 30 Bishops and Metropolitans of the Diocese from 620 AD to 1372 AD.

The Nebra Sky Disc is the oldest representation of the stars in history - 100 years older than the oldest depictions in Egypt dating from 1800 BC. This fantastic bronze disc was discovered in Nebra Germany and attributed to the Early Bronze Age Unetice Culture - not far from the related archaeological site of Leubingen. The disc is 30 cm in diameter and weights 2.2 kg - it is made of bronze and inlaid in gold with incredible details - a complex picture of the sky with the sun, moon and stars. It was the first representation of the universe in human history. The sun represented the bringer of life - the crescent moon represents the passage of time - the horizon band represents the sacred summer and winter solstices in Europe - and the sun boat, also seen in Egyptian mythology, represents the travel of the sun during the night back to the horizon. The stars are the final piece of the Jigsaw: the Pleiades constellation which appears in early Fall and disappears in Spring. Ancient Greeks also referred to the Pleiades as the celestial marker for the harvest season.

The island of Hvar, located near the Great Palace of Diocletian shown here, was a strategic port that linked Italy, Greece, and Constantinople across the Adriatic. As part of Dalmatia, it supplied Rome with ships, soldiers, and safe harbors, making the region a backbone of imperial defense. Dalmatia even gave the empire one of its greatest rulers — Emperor Diocletian, born near Salona, who rebuilt Rome after the chaos of the 3rd century crisis. He constructed this enormous palace which can be visited today in Split Croatia. Later, the last Western emperor, Julius Nepos, ruled from Dalmatia in exile - likely from this same palace - showing how this coast became a final stronghold of Roman power. Sea trade brought wealth, movement, and people from across the empire into Hvars bustling harbor. Far from being a quiet island, Hvar stood at the center of imperial drama, trade, and survival in Late Antiquity.

The Vendel Period pre-dated the Viking Age in Sweden between 550-800 AD as ships sailed east to explore the waterways of eastern Europe. The saga of Swedish Viking Ingvar the Far-travelled was thought to be a tale rather than a real story based on events. However a series of runestones in central Sweden tell the story about a great expedition east led by the Viking chieftain Ingvar. The Ynglinga saga states that Ingvar was a great warrior who patrolled the shores of his kingdom fighting Danes and Estonians. He made peace with the Danes so he could focus on Estonia landing at a palce called Stein. The Estonians assembled a great army inland and attacked King Ingvar in a great battle. The Estonian forces were too powerful and Ingvar fell while the Swedish forces retreated. The saga says the famous warrior was buried in a mound on the shores of Estonia.

The skeleton of a 9 year old boy from Iron Age Holland was discovered near a burial mound in the town of Uitgeest. He is nicknamed Aak which means made of iron. He is esimated to have lived around 200 BC during the Late Iron Age when most people in this part of Ancient Frisia were farmers. Not much is known about Aak other than he lived during a turbulent time when the Roman Empire was sweeping into Celtic and Germanic lands. Ancient Frisia was a coastal area of low lands and small islands located on the path between the Romans and Germania.

The remains from Moravia, dating to around 28,500 BC, are very late in the Neanderthal timeline. By this time, Neanderthals had already largely disappeared, making finds like PLV001 significant for understanding the last contacts between Neanderthals and Homo sapiens in central Europe. The Czech region was an important meeting point between western and eastern populations, with caves and open-air sites yielding evidence of both species. Although fragmentary, the remains from Moravia show traits typical of late Neanderthals. They are associated with stone tools and evidence of interaction with Upper Paleolithic technologies, which may reflect contact with Homo sapiens groups moving into the region. This late survival challenges older models that assumed a quick, total replacement of Neanderthals by modern humans. Instead, the Moravian finds point to a complex and gradual process of overlap, mixture, and eventual disappearance of Neanderthal groups.

Erik Torvaldsson, later known as Erik the Red, was born in Norway around 950 AD but emigrated to Iceland after his father Thorvald Asvaldsson was exhiled after being convicted of murder. Erik's family had settled a nice plot of land in a northern fjord. However after his thralls (personal serfs) were killed for starting a landslide on a neighbor's property, he took revenge and slew his neighbor as well as another man. Convicted for murder, Erik was banished from Iceland. Instead of returning to Norway, from where his own father was banished earlier, Erik decided to sail further west.

The Hanseatic League was a merchant union between many of the great trading cities across the North and Baltic seas formed during the late Medieval period. Numerous guilds in northern german cities called Hanse established business partnerships to protect trade and business interests. In 1241 the cities of Lübeck and Hamburg formed a formal trading relationship which connected the fishing routes of the Baltic and North Seas with inland salt mines. As the Hanses grew and more cities joined, they became fierce competition with Scandinavia who had previously controlled these trade routes.

Beginning in the 8th century, the Danes began a long era of well-organized raids across the coasts and rivers of Europe. Large areas outside Scandinavia were settled by the Danes including what became know as the Danelaw in England, the Netherlands, northern France and Ireland. Two Viking warriors from the same clan separated for more than 1000 years and have finally been reunited at the Danish National Museum in Copenhagen.

Catherine the Great was Empress of Russia from 1762 to 1796 and also the country's longest ruling female leader. During her reign, Russia grew larger and became one of the world's great powers. She is shown here wearing the uniform of the famous Preobrazhensky Regiment. Catherine possessed considerable charm, a lively intelligence, and extraordinary energy. Her true passion was ambition.

Rowing down the great rivers of Eastern Europe on the decks of dragon-headed longboats, Swedish Vikings (known by the Slavic tribes as Rus for rowing) found these lands irresistable - there was no centralized control, tons of wealth to trade and raid and very long rivers to navigate. The Norsemen would raid Slavic villages and capture slaves to sell in the southern markets. Before 860 AD, the Slavs, Balts and Finns revolted against the Swedish masters. However after falling back into disorganized chaos, the Slavic people asked the Varangian Rus to send a Prince to rule over them and bring back order. Rurik (shown here) was this prince and settled in 862 AD.

Izyaslav Ingvarevich was the son of Ingvar Yaroslavich, the Prince of Kiev. In 1220 AD, Izyaslav was appointed to be Prince of Dorogobuzh. During this time period, the Kievan Rus Dynasty had been divided into seperate principalities which were loosely organized. Meanwhile to the East, Genghis Khan had been busy conquering China and Central Asia to build a vast Empire with his eyes starting to look towards the West.

On Ridgeway Hill in the County of Dorset, a mass burial was found with the remains of 54 males. These individuals had all been executed in a gruesome manner with their decapitated heads dumped together in a large pit. Interestingly enough all of the sharp blade wounds had been struck from the front, meaning these individuals had faced their enemy. Radiocarbon dating showed the bodies were from 890-1030 AD. Strontium isotopes found in the bones show these individuals were originally from Scandinavia.

The Crusader States (also known as Outremer) were created after the First Crusade (1095-1102) as a way to keep hold of territorial gains by Christian armies in the Middle East. Crusader castles were built all over Outremer to serve not only as defensive structures, but also as administrative and economic centers designed to last for many years to come. The four small Outremer states were the Kingdom of Jerusalem, the County of Edessa, the Country of Tripoli and the Principality of Antioch. This analysis focuses on the former Phoenician and later Roman colony of Sidon / Saida which remained in Arab hands until 1110 when King Baldwin I of Jerusalem and King Sigured I of Norway captured it. The city was then re-captured by the masterful Saladin in 1187, only to be re-taken by German Crusaders in 1197. It remained a key Crusader stronghold until the Saracen invasion of 1249 when it was destroyed - this series of exchanges presented the backdrop for the ill-fated 7th Crusade.

The Birka female Viking warrior was a woman buried in the 10th century in Birka, Sweden and discovered in the 1870s. The grave was assumed to be a "battle hardened man" for 128 years until DNA analysis proved she was actually a high-ranking professional warrior. Shield-maidens are female warriors that take on male roles including wielding weapons and are depicted in many period figures, tapestries and brooches as well as mentioned by the famous Danish historian of the time, Saxo Grammaticus.

Aethelred II, known later as "the Unready", was King of the English from 978 to 1013 and again from 1014 until his death. He came to the throne at the age of 12 after his half brother was murdered. At the start of his reign, Danish raids on English territory began in earnest. Aethelred defended his country by a diplomatic alliance with the duke of Normandy. The Battle of Maldon on 11. August 991 AD involved 2,000-4,000 fighting Viking men led by Olaf Tryggvason against the Anglo-Saxon leader Byrhtnoth who was the Ealdorman of Essex. This ended in defeat for the Anglo-Saxons and King Aethelred was forced to pay tribute, also known as Danegeld, to the Danish king. This payment of 10,000 Roman pounds of silver was the first example of Danegeld in England - a pattern which would follow. The Danish army continued ravaging the English coast until a Danegeld of 22,000 pounds of gold and silver was paid - at which point Olaf Tryggvason promised to never return. Viking attacks only grew worse - Danish raids would follow leading to an even larger Danegeld payment of 24,000 pounds for peace in the Spring of 1002 AD.

A Norseman from West Norway named Naddoðr was en-route to the Faroe Islands and got lost accidentally landing in Iceland - seeing no signs of life and the snow falling, he named this land Snæland (snow land). Around the same period, a Swedish Viking named Garðarr Svavarsson was on his way to the Hebrides islands to claim an inheritance. He had difficulty navigating the Orkney islands and ended up drifting to Iceland. Instead of making landfall, he circumnavigated Iceland to discover this piece of land was indeed an island and spent the winter in a northern bay he called Húsavík (house bay). After returning to Norway stories were told of Garðarr's adventures. Hrafna-Flóki Vilgerðarson decided he would be the first Viking to head to Iceland and settle it.

The Carolingian Dynasty was a family of Frankish rulers who established rule over Western Europe after the weakening of the Merovingian kings. Their story begins in 718 AD when a man named Charles Martel (a.k.a. Charles the Hammer) became Duke of the Franks serving the puppet Frankish king Chilperic II. This King died in 720 AD and replaced by Theodoric IV who Charles had appointed himself. By 730 AD the Frankish kingdom grew as Charles conquered many of the German peoples to the East. The Duchy of Aquitaine had broken off and was struggling with its southern neighbor, the Umayyad Caliphate - which was until then the largest and wealthiest empire ever assembled. The Duke of Aquitaine asked Charles for help in exchange for submission to his rule. At the famous battle of Tours, the Franks had a decisive victory against the Caliphate and by 740 AD they were no longer a critical threat to Francia. After the puppet king Theodoric IV died, Charles did not replace him but also did not declare himself King. Upon Charles Martel's death his empire was split between his two sons - Pepin and Carloman.

The Merovingian realm was the largest and most powerful western European state following the fall of the Western Roman Empire. The first Merovingian king was Childeric I who died in 481 AD, followed by his son Clovis I who converted to Christianity, united the Franks and conquered all of Gaul except Burgundy and all of Germania except Saxony. Typically there was a mix of people and culture found in the Merovingian society such that Gallo-Roman populations would be integrated with the Germanic populations, and Frankish or Alemannic goods are artifacts would be mixed with Roman or Byzantine items. Richly furnished graves of nobility known as Adelsgrablege demonstrated how the kinship structure and family status would include not just immediate family, but also those in their immediate retinue. It is also worth noting that Niederstotzingen was an important land route near the crossroad of two former Roman highways.

In 1907, two mummies were discovered in Deir Rifeh Egypt in a tomb belonging to a governor and his sons from the 12th Dynasty (almost 4000 years ago). The tomb group is one of the best preserved and best known burials of the Egyptian Middle Kingdom. Although the mummies were heavily decayed, the skeletons were still preserved. Khnum-Nakht was about 40 years old and Nakht-Ankh about 60.

Louis XVI was the last king of France before the monarchy fell during the French Revolution. His reign began with attempts to reform the French government according to ideas of the Enlightenment - including efforts such as removing land taxes, abolishing serfdom and increased tolerance for non-Catholics. French nobility opposed the implementation of thse reforms. Louis was able to implement changes regarding deregulation of the grain market, but this resulted in increased bread prices which combined with periods of bad harvests led to unrest. His support for the North American colonists seeking independence from Great Britain led to a financial crisis and further debt. France's middle and lower classes became discontent and angry towards the monarchy. This led to the storming of the Bastille and the start of the French Revolution. News spread quickly throughout France and popular sovereignty took hold with a complete disregard for claims of royal authority.

In 558 AD, a nomadic Avar envoy arrived in Constantinople to meet Justinian the Great (and to see the wealth of Byzantium). Their realm far to the East had been conquered by a Turkic people and like many other groups migrating westwards they were seeking refuge. These Avar arrivals to Europe were a mixed people and organized as a Khagante which is a federation of tribes ruled by a single Khagan who was surrounded by a circle of powerful nobles. What made the Avar Khagante stronger than other nomadic groups before was the strength and cohesion of the entire Avar Elite who also wielded power and wealth, rather than being centered on the Khagan himself. The Avars allied with the Longobards to defeat the Gepids in the Cartpathian Basin to create a new home while the Longobards headed towards northern Italy.

French revolutionists condemned King Louis XVI to death on 21. January 1793 by means of the guillotine at the Place de la Revolution in Paris (roughly where the Obelisk decorating the Place de la Concorde stands today). After a short but defiant speech he lost his head as the crowd rushed to the scaffold to dip hankerchiefs into his blood as momentos. An ornate gourd decorated with French Revolution themes was recently uncovered which had contained a blood soaked hankerchief dating to this time. The gourd was allegedly a gift to Napoleon Bonaparte who became First Consul of France in 1799 and Emperor in 1804. An anonymous Italian family was in its posession since possibly the late 1800s and came forward with the relic. It bears an inscription that Maximilien Bourdaloue on 21. January dipped his hankerchief in the blood of the king. Dried blood was scraped out and this is the same DNA we present in this DNA spotlight! The sample contains unsually high and rare markers for the Y-DNA haplogroup G2a.

The future French Revolutionary Jean-Paul Marat left home at the age of 16 to train in medicine and would eventually settle in Newcastle upon Tyne where he gained a reputation as being a highly efficient doctor who also had an interest in political writings. He moved back France 6 years later and his medical skills earned him the patronage of the aristocracy. He used his new found wealth to found a scientific laboratory where he began studies on fire, heat, light and electricity - he was even visited by Benjamin Franklin. Despite his new status and success, he began so spend a lot of time discussing and writing about social injustice.

The Minoan Civilization was an advanced maritime race who once controlled the trade of the mediterranean. They were centered around the island of Crete and reached their peak around 1700 BC. The Minoan King Minos was said to have built a labyrinth to cage a monster - half man and half bull - the Minotaur was the result of a union between a sacred bull and the King's unfaithful wife. Today the Palace at Knossos makes us wonder if this was once the home of the Minotaur, or if it was the inspiration for the Greek legend. The Minoans invented numerous breakthrough building technologies which would incorporate columns, light-wells and terraces to bring light deep into enormous structures. Cobblestone streets and an advanced underground drainage system was built at Knossos a thousand years before the Rome. The palace had 1500 interconnected rooms covered with detailed frescos as shown. A local sport very popular to Minoans was bull jumping where athletes had to execute jumps over and on a charging bull - a true sign of courage and gallantry.

Denmark's glacial period lasted until 13,000 years ago allowing humans to move back into land previoulsy covered by ice and establish permanent habitation. The landscape turned from tundra to light forest and various plants appeared. The first inhabitants of this post-glaical landscape hunted reindeer and other land mammals as well as gathered fruit. By 8300 BC the temperature reached 15 degrees in the summer and aurochs and elk arrived from the south. The oldest known bog body (a human mummified in peat bog) was found here in 8000 BC. By 4500 BC, Denmark became a series of islands and the inhabitatns shifted to a seafood based diet which enabled the population to increase. The fourth largest island, Lolland, was the site of a settlement from 3700 BC.

The Gelonians (also known as Helonians) were known by the ancient Greek historian Herodotus to occupy northwestern Scythia. They were originally Hellenes who settled among the Budinis (perhaps a Finnic-Votic tribe ruled by the Scythians) and were bilingual in both Greek and the Scythian language. Their capital was called Gelonus or Helonus, from the Greek word for market town. Scythians revered the stag which was believed to speed the spirits of the dead on their way.

George Calvert was the first to dream of a colony in America where Catholics and Protestants could prosper together. George had studied at Trinity College at Oxford and been knighted by King James I for good service as an advisor. Sir George Calvert became Secretary of State for the King. Having just converted to Catholicism, he was forced to resign from his job so the King gave him another title - First Baron of Baltimore, a town on the Irish coast.